Educati on and Discipli ne
Betrand Rusll
Any rious educational theory must consist of two parts: a conception of the ends of life , putoffand a scienee of psychological dynamics , i.e., inproof the laws of mental change. Two men who differ as to the ends of life cannot hope to agree about education. The educational machine, throughout Western civilization , is dominated by two ethical theories : that of Christianity , and that of n atio nalism. The two, whe n take n riously, are in compatible , as is beco ming evident in Germany. For my part, I hold that where they differ, Christianity is preferable , but where they agree, both are mistake n.
zhongzhengThe conception which I should substitute as the purpo of education is civilization , a term which , as I meant it , has a defi niti on which is partly in dividual , partly social. It con sists , in the in dividual , of both in tellectual and moral qualities : in tellectually 江苏禽流感最新消息, a certa in minimum of general knowledge , technical skill in one's own profession , and a habit of forming opinions on evidenee; morally , of impartiality , kindliness , and a modicum of lf-c
ontrol. I should add a quality which is neither moral nor intellectual , but perhaps physiological: zest and joy of life. In com mun ities , civilizati on dema nds respect for law , justice as betwee n man and man ,
purpos not involving permanent injury to any ction of the human race , and intelligent adaptati on of means to en ds.
If the are to be the purpo of educati on , 2013年英语四级真题it is a questi on for the scie nee of
psychology to consider what can be done towards realizing them , and , in particular , what degree of freedom is likely to prove most effective.
On the question of freedom in education there are at prent three main schools of thought , deriving partly from differences as to ends and partly from differe nces in psychological theory. There are tho who say that childre n should be completely free 挥着翅膀的女孩歌词, however bad they may be ; there are tho who say they should be completely subject to authority , however good they may be ; and there are tho who say they should be free ,
but in spite of freedom they should be always good. This last party is larger than it has any logical right to be ; Children , like adults , will not all be virtuous if they are all free. The belief that liberty will in sure moral perfecti on is a relic of Rousauism , and would n ot survive a study of animals and babies. Tho who hold this belief think that education should have no positive purpo , but should merely offer an environment suitable for spontaneous development. I cannot agree with this school , which ems too individualistic , and unduly indifferent to the importance of knowledge. We live in com mun ities which require cooperati on , and it would be utopia n to expect all the necessary cooperation to result from spontaneous impul. The existence of a large population on a limited area is only possible owing to science and technique ; education must, therefore , hand on the necessary minimum of the. The educators who allow most freedom are men who success depends upon a degree of benevolence , lf-control , and trained intelligence which can hardly be gen erated where every impul is left un checked ； their merits , therefore , are not likely to be perpetuated if their methods are undiluted. Education ,晚安的日语 viewed from a social sta ndpo int , must be someth ing more positive tha n a
mere opport unity for growth. It must , of cour , boreprovide this , but it must also provide a mental and moral equipme nt which childre n cannot acquire en tirely for themlves.
The argume nts in favor of a great degree of freedom in educati on are derived not from man's natural goodness , but from the effects of authority , both on tho who suffer it and on tho who exerci it. Tho who are subject to authority become either submissive or rebellious , and each attitude has its drawbacks.
The submissive lo initiative , both in thought and action ; moreover red light, the an ger gen erated by the feeli ng of being thwarted tends to find an outlet in bully ing tho who are weaker. That is why tyranni cal in stitutio ns are lf-perpetuat ing what a man has suffered from his father he inflicts upon his son , and the humiliati ons which he remembers hav ing en dured at his public school he pass on to "natives" when he becomes an empire-builder. Thus an unduly authoritative educati on turns the pupils into timid tyra nts , in capable of either claimi ng or tolerati ng origi nality in word or deed. The effect upon the educators is eve n wor : they tend to become sadistic discipli naria ns belong是什么意思, glad to in spire terror , and content to
in spire nothing el. As the men repre nt kno wledge , the pupils acquire a horror of knowledge , which , among the English upper class , is suppod to be part of human nature , but is really part of the well-grounded hatred of the authoritarian pedagogue.
Rebels , on the other hand , though they may be necessary , can hardly be just to what exists. Moreover , there are many ways of rebelling , and only a small minority of the are wi. Galileo was a rebel and was wi ； believers in the flat-earth theory are equally rebels , but are foolish. There is a great dan ger in the tendency to suppo that opposition to authority is esntially meritorious and that unconven ti onal opinions are bound to be correct : no uful purpo is rved by smashing lamp-posts or maintaining Shakespeare to be no poet. Yet this excessive rebellious ness is ofte n the effect that too much authority has on spirited pupils. And whe n rebels become educators , they sometimes en courage defia nee in their pupils , for whom at the same time they are trying to produce a perfect environment , although the two aims are scarcely compatible.
What is wan ted is n either submissive ness nor rebelli on , but good n ature ,
and gen eral frien dli ness both to people and to new ideas. The qualities are due in part to physical caus , to which old-fashioned educators paid too little attention ; but they are due still more to freedom from the feeling of baffled impote nee which aris whe n vital impuls are thwarted. If the young are to grow into friendly adults , it is necessary , in most cas , that they should feel their environment friendly. This requires that there should be a certain sympathy with the child's important desires , and not merely an attempt to u him for some abstract end such as the glory of God or the great ness of on e's coun try. And , in teaching , every attempt should be made to cau the pupil to feel that it is worth his while to know what is being taught--at least whe n this is true. When the pupil cooperates willingly , he learns twice as fast and with half the fatigue. All the are valid reas ons for a very great degree of freedom.
