Restatement of the Law,Second,Torts Copyright(c)1965,The American Law Institute 法律集解1（第二版）：侵权法（《法律重述》）
美国法学会1965年出版
Division2-Negligence
Chapter16-The Causal Relation Necessary to Responsibility for Negligence
Topic1-Causal Relation Necessary to the Existence of Liability for Another's Harm
Title A-General Principles
§430Necessity of Adequate Causal Relation
In order that a negligent actor shall be liable for another's harm,it is necessary not only that the actor's conduct be negligent toward the other,but also that the negligence of the actor be a legal cau of the other's harm.
§431What Constitutes Legal Cau
The actor's negligent conduct is a legal cau of harm to another if
(a)his conduct is a substantial factor in bringing about the harm,and
(b)there is no rule of law relieving the actor from liability becau of the manner in which his negligence has resulted in the harm.
§432Negligent Conduct as Necessary Antecedent of Harm (1)Except as stated in Subction(2),the actor's negligent conduct is not a substantial factor in bringing about harm to another if the harm would have been sustained even if the actor had not been negligent.
(2)If two forces are actively operating,one becau of the actor's negligence,the other not becau of any misconduct on his part,and each of itlf is sufficient to bring about harm to another,the actor's negligence may be found to be a substantial factor in bringing it about.
§433Considerations Important in Determining Whether Negligent Conduct Is Substantial Factor in Producing Harm
The following considerations are in themlves or in combination with one another important in determining whether the actor's conduct is a substantial factor in bringing about harm to another:
(a)the number of other factors which contribute in producing the harm and the extent of the effect which they have in producing it;
(b)whether the actor's conduct has created a force or ries of forces which are in continuous and active operation up to the time of the harm,or has created a situation harmless unless acted upon by other forces for which the actor is not responsible;
(c)lap of time.
§433A Apportionment of Harm to Caus
(1)Damages for harm are to be apportioned among two or more caus where
(a)there are distinct harms,or
(b)there is a reasonable basis for determining the contribution of each cau to a single harm.
(2)Damages for any other harm cannot be apportioned among two or more caus.
§433B Burden of Proof
(1)Except as stated in Subctions(2)and(3),the burden of proof that the tortious conduct of the defendant has caud the harm to the plaintiff is upon the plaintiff.
(2)Where the tortious conduct of two or more actors has combined to bring about harm to the plaintiff,and one or more of the actors eks 第二编过失侵权
第十六章承担过失侵权责任所必要的因果关系
第一节确立伤害侵权责任所必要的因果关系
第一小节一般原则
第430条具备充分的因果关系
若要使过失行为人为他人所受伤害承担责任，不仅要求其行为对对方而言存在过失，而且此过失应是对方受伤害的法律原因。
第431条何谓法律原因2
行为人的过失行为是他人受伤害的法律原因，是指：
(a)行为是伤害产生的重要因素3；并且
(b)行为过失地造成伤害，但无法律规则可以因行为造成伤害的不同方式而免除行为人的责任4。
第432条过失行为构成伤害发生的必要先决条件
(1)除本条第2项的规定外，若即使行为人没有过失，损害也会发生，则行为人的过失行为不是造成伤害的重要因素。
(2)如有两种力量积极参与作用，其一来源于行为人的过失，另一则非可归咎于行为人的任何不当行为。若两种之任一力量单独均足以造成他人伤害，则可以认定行为人的过失是造成损害的重要因素。
第433条判定是否构成“重要因素”时的若干重要考虑
在认定过失行为是否是造成伤害的重要因素时，可以着重，分别或合并的，考虑下列因素：
(a)参与致损的其他因素的数量，以及对伤害产生的作用程度；
(b)行为人的行为是产生了一个或连串的力量并持续积极作用直至伤害发生的时点，还是仅产生一无害的情势，若非无关乎行为人的其他力量的作用，不致发生伤害；
(c)间隔的时间跨度。
第433A条依原因分配损害
(1)损害赔偿应在两个或多个原因之间作分配，如果存在：
(a)可区分的多个损害后果；或
(b)一个损害后果，但有合理的方式决定各原因的贡献。
(2)其他类的损害赔偿不得在两个或多个原因之间作分配。
第433B条举证责任
(1)除本条第2项、第3项规定外，应由原告证明被告的侵权行为给原告造成了伤害。
(2)如两人或多人的侵权行为相结合造就了原告的伤害，其中一位或多位主张损害结果可分割，要求限制自身承担的责任时，持此主张的行为
1旧译作《法律重述》（大陆地区）或《法律整编》（台湾）。
2若要成就为造成他人损害的法律原因，仅满足“若非行为人的疏忽，损害不会发生”是不够的，过失还必须是造成损害的重要因素。
3所谓“重要”（substantial），是说被告人的行为对损害的产生有如此之有影响，以至于通常的人将会视之为损害发生的原因，而这其中，隐含着行为人要为此担负责任的意思；§433说明了评判“重要因素”的若干因素。
4即使过失行为是造成伤害的重要因素，行为人的责任也可能因过失行为造成损害的不同方式而得以免除，这些例外情况在435条-461条中有规定。
to limit his liability on the ground that the harm is capable of apportionment among them,the burden of proof as to the apportionment is upon each such actor.
(3)Where the conduct of two or more actors is tortious,and it is proved that harm has been caud to the plaintiff by only one of them, but there is uncertainty as to which one has caud it,the burden is upon each such actor to prove that he has not caud the harm.
§434Functions of Court and Jury
(1)It is the function of the court to determine
proficient
(a)whether the evidence as to the facts makes an issue upon which the jury may reasonably differ as to whether the conduct of the defendant has been a substantial factor in causing the harm to the plaintiff;
(b)whether the harm to the plaintiff is capable of apportionment among two or more caus;and
(c)the questions of causation and apportionment,in any ca in which the jury may not reasonably differ.
(2)It is the function of the jury to determine,in any ca in which it may reasonably differ on the issue,
(a)whether the defendant's conduct has been a substantial factor in causing the harm to the plaintiff,and
(b)the apportionment of the harm to two or more caus.
Title B-Rules Which Determine the Responsibility of a Negligent Actor for Harm Which His Conduct Is a Substantial Factor in Producing
§435Foreeability of Harm or Manner of Its Occurrence
(1)If the actor's conduct is a substantial factor in bringing about harm to another,the fact that the actor neither foresaw nor should have foreen the extent of the harm or the manner in which it occurred does not prevent him from being liable.blunt的反义词
(2)The actor's conduct may be held not to be a legal cau of harm to another where after the event and looking back from the harm to the actor's negligent conduct,it appears to the court highly extraordinary that it should have brought about the harm.
§435A Intended Conquences
A person who commits a tort against another for the purpo of causing a particular harm to the other is liable for such harm if it results,whether or not it is expectable,except where the harm results from an outside force the risk of which is not incread by the defendant's act.
brainchild
§435B Unintended Conquences of Intentional Invasions Where a person has intentionally invaded the legally protected interests of another,his intention to commit an invasion,the degree of his moral wrong in acting,and the riousness of the harm which he intended are important factors in determining whether he is liable for resulting unintended harm.
§436Physical Harm Resulting From Emotional Disturbance (1)If the actor's conduct is negligent as violating a duty of care designed to protect another from a fright or other emotional disturbance which the actor should recognize as involving an unreasonable risk of bodily harm,the fact that the harm results solely through the internal operation of the fright or other emotional disturbance does not protect the actor from liability.
(2)If the actor's conduct is negligent as creating an unreasonable risk 人应就责任分配5承担举证责任。
(3)如两人或多人存在侵权行为，已证明仅其一造成了原告的损害，但不能确定是哪一人，则应由各个行为人证明其行为没有造成伤害。
第434条法庭与陪审团的职权分工
(1)以下问题由法庭决断：
(a)有关于事实的证据是否足以形成争议的问题，即陪审团对于被告行为是否是导致原告受伤害的重要因素这点是否存在合理的分歧意见;
(b)原告所受伤害是否可在两个或多个原因之间进行分配；
(c)对于陪审团不至于有合理分歧的案件，由法庭决定因果关系及责任分配。
(2)就存有合理分歧的任何案件，由陪审团决定：
(a)被告的行为是否是造成原告伤害的重要因素；
(b)两个或多个原因之间的损失分配。
第二小节行为构成伤害的重要因素时，确定过失行为人责任的规则
第435条伤害或其发生方式的可预见性
freemason
(1)如果行为是导致他人受伤害的重要因素，那么行为人即使没有预见或无从预见伤害的程度或其发生方式，也不因此而得以免责。
(2)如果在伤害发生后回头审视行为人的过失行为，在法院看来，事之发生极为罕见，本不应造成伤害，那么行为人的行为也可以不认定为是造成伤害的法律原因。
第435A条行为所追求的结果
法语流行歌曲
英文学习软件某人实施侵权行为，意图使他人遭受特定伤害，如伤害实际发生，则不论是否在意料之中，行为人应
对此负责，除非伤害是由外力所致，且外力的风险非因被告行为而增生。
第435B条不是故意侵犯行为所追求的结果
如某人故意侵犯他人受法律保护的利益，引发非其所追求的伤害，在判定行为人对此是否应担责时，其实施侵权行为的故意，行为时的道德过错程度，以及所欲追求的伤害的严重程度等等是重要的考量因素。
第436条情绪障碍6引发的身体伤害
(1)如行为可能因违反旨在保护他人免受惊吓或其他情绪困扰的注意义务而构成过失7，且行为人理应察觉此中牵涉伤害身体的不合理危险，则即使身体伤害纯因惊吓或其他情绪困扰的内部运作所致，行为人并不因此而得以免责。
(2)如行为可能因造成伤害他人身体的不合理危险而构成过失，但非以使
5apportionment的动词形式apportion可以译作“分摊”、“分配”，apportionment可以译作“分担”、“分摊”、“分配”。“分担”、“分摊”往往带有“平均”的含义，而此处的apportionment指的是根据各自对损害后果的“原因力”来担责，并不一定是“平均”，所以在作动词用时译作“分割”，作名词用时译作“分配”（分配含有一一对应的含义）。
6情绪困扰、情绪失常、情绪障碍（失调、紊乱），依照各处适当的作不同的翻译。
7本条规则的前提是行为因违反注意义务（不制造惊吓等）而构成过失，那么应对惊吓等情绪困扰引发的身体伤害担责。反言之，如果前提行为虽然惊吓到他人，但不构成过失，则不适用本条的规则。
大耳朵英语听力of causing bodily harm to another otherwi than by subjecting him to fright,shock,or other similar and immediate emotional disturbance, the fact that such harm results solely from the internal operation of fright or other emotional disturbance does not protect the actor from liability.
(3)The rule stated in Subction(2)applies where the bodily harm to the other results from his shock or fright at harm or peril to a member of his immediate family occurring in his prence.
§436A Negligence Resulting in Emotional Disturbance Alone
If the actor's conduct is negligent as creating an unreasonable risk of causing either bodily harm or emotional disturbance to another,and it results in such emotional disturbance alone,without bodily harm or other compensable damage,the actor is not liable for such emotional disturbance.
§437Actor's Subquent Efforts to Prevent His Negligence From Causing Harm
If the actor's negligent conduct is a substantial factor in bringing about harm to another,the fact that after the risk has been created by his negligence the actor has exercid reasonable care to prevent it from taking effect in harm does not prevent him from being liable for the harm.
§438Harm Resulting to or Caud by Animals Negligently Deprived of Custody
If the actor's negligent conduct deprives animals of the control which is necessary to prevent them from harming themlves or the persons,lands,or chattels of others,the actor is liable for any harm which the abnce of such control is a substantial factor in bringing about.
§439Effect of Contributing Acts of Third Persons When Actor's Negligence Is Actively Operating
If the effects of the actor's negligent conduct actively and continuously operate to bring about harm to another,the fact that the active and substantially simultaneous operation of the effects of a third person's innocent,tortious,or criminal act is also a substantial factor in bringing about the harm does not protect the actor from liability.
Title C-Superding Cau
§440Superding Cau Defined
A superding cau is an act of a third person or other force which by its intervention prevents the actor from being liable for harm to another which his antecedent negligence is a substantial factor in bringing about.
§441Intervening Force Defined
(1)An intervening force is one which actively operates in producing harm to another after the actor's negligent act or omission has been committed.
(2)Whether the active operation of an intervening force prevents the actor's antecedent negligence from being a legal cau in bringing about harm to another is determined by the rules stated in§§442-453.他人遭受惊吓、打击，或其他相似和直接的干扰情绪的方式，则即使身体伤害纯因惊吓或其他情绪困扰的内部运作所致，行为人并不因此而得以免责。
卡耐基培训(3)他人身体伤害系因亲眼目睹近亲属受伤或濒危而受到打击或惊吓所致，前第（2）项的规定依旧适用。
第436A条过失仅造成情绪障碍
如果行为可能因造成使他人遭受身体伤害或情绪障碍的不合理危险而构成过失，那么当过失行为仅导
致情绪障碍，并未导致身体受伤或其他可赔偿的损失时，行为人毋须就情绪障碍担责。
第437条行为人后续避险努力造成的伤害
如过失行为是致他人受伤的重要因素，则在危险形成后，行为人虽行使合理注意以避免伤害的发生，其责任并不此因而免除。
第438条过失丧失监管对动物或由其造成的伤害
如过失行为使得对动物的羁束落空，而这羁束又是为避免动物侵害其自身、他人的人身、土地或动产所必要的，则当此种羁束的缺失构成伤害发生的重要因素时，行为人应对此担责。
第439条过失行为积极作用期间，第三人参与行为的影响
如果行为人过失行为的结果积极、持续的作用，对他人造成伤害，那么第三人的无过失、侵权或犯罪的行为的结果的积极和几乎同时的作用，即使同样构成伤害的重要因素，也并不使行为人得以免责。
第三小节取代原因8
第440条取代原因的定义
取代原因是指第三人的行为或其他力的作用，由于此因素的介入，行为人因先前过失行为构成伤害的重要因素而本应担负的责任得以免除。
第441条介入力的定义
(1)介人力是指某一力量，其在行为人过失的作为或不作为之后开始积极地运作9并导致了对他人的伤害。10
(2)行为人的先前过失行为是否因介入力的积极运作免于认定为致他人伤害的法律原因，依第442条至第453条的规则决定。
8可选翻译“替代”或“取代”。【取代】：排除别人或别的事物而占有其位置：你的地位别人无法取代｜用机器人取代人工。【代替】：1.交替，轮流。2.取代。“代替”和“替代”只是语素的颠倒，语义和使用环境完全相同。
辨析：
“代”在现代汉语中有“暂代”之意；“替”这个字在现代汉语中有“更换”的意思。“代替”所表达的是暂时性的代替，以甲物代乙物，起乙的作用。“替代”所表达的是永久性的代替，乙占据甲的位置。
【取代】着重指用阴谋或强制手段夺取别人的地位和作用，而由自己占据，两者之间一般有尖锐矛盾；适用范围较窄，用于一方对另一方，被取代的人或事物往往是不情愿或不好的，用于物时，多限于同类事物；不能交换位置，也不能与“彼此”、“互相”搭配。[例]姐姐是想～妹妹当新娘。
【代替】着重指甲、乙双方平等替换，双方是自愿的，或没有甲时由乙替换，或先进的换下落后的，两者之间没有利害冲突；适用范围最宽，可以用于一切互相替换的场合；可以交换语素位置，说成“替代”，常和“彼此”、“互相”、“相互”搭配。[例]法布尔《蝉》:“这种成熟很快的蚋的幼虫，每个小孔内有一个，以蝉卵为食,～了蝉的家族。”【顶替】着重指以别人的名义或身份去代替他；适用范围最窄，只用于人和具体事物；不能交换语素位置，不能与“彼此”、“互相”搭配。[例]郭沫若《屈原》:“我们是从宫中逃出来的，就是用了一点诡计把一个更夫来～了婵娟。”
9运行作用；相近词语：运行，运转，运动；
10这一外力可以出现在过失行为之前，但若其在过失行为之后开始积极运作并导致伤害，并且行为人行为时对此外力并不知晓，则同样构成介入力。
§442Considerations Important in Determining Whether an Intervening Force Is a Superding Cau
The following considerations are of importance in determining whether an intervening force is a superding cau of harm to another:
(a)the fact that its intervention brings about harm different in kind from that which would otherwi have resulted from the actor's negligence;
(b)the fact that its operation or the conquences thereof appear after the event to be extraordinary rather than normal in view of the circumstances existing at the time of its operation;
观潮翻译(c)the fact that the intervening force is operating independently of any situation created by the actor's negligence,or,on the other hand,is or is not a normal result of such a situation;
(d)the fact that the operation of the intervening force is due to a third person's act or to his failure to act;
(e)the fact that the intervening force is due to an act of a third person which is wrongful toward the other and as such subjects the third person to liability to him;
(f)the degree of culpability of a wrongful act of a third person which ts the intervening force in motion.
§442A Intervening Force Risked by Actor's Conduct
Where the negligent conduct of the actor creates or increa s the foreeable risk of harm through the intervention of another force, and is a substantial factor in causing the harm,such intervention is not a superding cau.
§442B Intervening Force Causing Same Harm as That Risked by Actor's Conduct
Where the negligent conduct of the actor creates or increas the risk of a particular harm and is a substantial factor in causing that harm, the fact that the harm is brought about through the intervention of another force does not relieve the actor of liability,except where the harm is intentionally caud by a third person and is not within the scope of the risk created by the actor's conduct.
§443Normal Intervening Force
The intervention of a force which is a normal conquence of a situation created by the actor's negligent conduct is not a superding cau of harm which such conduct has been a substantial factor in bringing about.
§444Acts Done Under Impulsion of Emotional Disturbance
An act done by another in normal respon to fear or emotional disturbance to which the actor's negligent conduct is a substantial factor in subjecting the other is not a superding cau of harm done by the other's act to himlf or a third person.
§445Acts of Protection From Danger Threatened by Actor's Negligence
If the actor's negligent conduct threatens harm to another's person, land,or chattels,the normal efforts of the other or a third person to avert the threatened harm are not a superding cau of harm resulting from such efforts.
§446Acts Necessary to Exerci of Privileges Tortiously Impeded
If the actor intentionally or negligently impedes the exerci of another's rights or privileges,the other's normal efforts to remove the impediment or to exerci the right or privilege notwithstanding its existence are not a superding cau of harm resulting from such efforts.
§447Negligence of Intervening Acts
where是什么意思中文
The fact that an intervening act of a third person is negligent in itlf 第442条认定介入力是否构成取代原因的重要考量因素
在决定介入力是否构成伤害他人的取代原因时，下列是重要的考虑因素：
(a)介入力导致的伤害与行为人过失原可引发的伤害在种类上不同；
(b)介入力在事发之后的运作或其后果，视乎其运作时存在情况而言，实属异常而非正常；
(c)介入力的运行作用独立于行为人过失所造成的情势，换言之，并非是由行为人过失所成情势的通常结果；
(d)介入力的运行作用缘于第三人的作为或不作为；
(e)介入力来源于对他人而言非法的第三人行为，且因此第三人应对该他人担责；
(f)启发介入力运作的第三人非法行为的罪责程度。
第442A条行为人甘冒的介入风险
如行为人的过失行为引发或扩大了可预见的外力介入风险，并且过失行为构成伤害的重要因素，则该
介入力不属取代原因。
第442B条介入力引发了行为人甘冒的伤害
如行为人的过失行为引发或扩大了引发特定伤害的风险，并且是造成伤害的重要因素，则虽然伤害是由外力介入而发生，行为人也不得因此免责，除非该伤害是由第三人故意行为所致，且不在过失行为所形成的风险范围内。
第443条正常介入力
如外力的介入属于过失行为所形成情势的正常结果，并且行为人的过失行为是造成伤害的重要因素，则该介入力不属取代原因。
第444条情绪受刺激下的行为
外人因行为人的过失行为而受到惊吓或情绪刺激，作出伤害自己或他人的行为，如惊吓或刺激属于正常反应，且过失行为是致此反应的重要因素，则外人的行为不属取代原因。
第445条应对过失行为所生危险的防御行为
行为人的过失行为危及他人身体、土地或动产的安全，对方或第三人为规避危险所作的通常努力，不构成由此而生的伤害的取代原因。
第446条排除权利行使非法障碍的必要行为
行为人故意或过失地妨碍他人行使权利或特权，对方为排除妨碍或者坚持行使权利所作的通常努力，不构成由此而生的伤害的取代原因。
第447条介入行为存在过失
如行为人的过失行为是他人受伤害的重要因素，则第三人的介入行为本
or is done in a negligent manner does not make it a superding cau of harm to another which the actor's negligent conduct is a substantial factor in bringing about,if
(a)the actor at the time of his negligent conduct should have realized that a third person might so act,or
(b)a reasonable man knowing the situation existing when the act of the third person was done would not regard it as highly extraordinary that the third person had so acted,or
(c)the intervening act is a normal conquence of a situation created by the actor's conduct and the manner in which it is done is not extraordinarily negligent.
§448Intentionally Tortious or Criminal Acts Done Under Opportunity Afforded by Actor's Negligence
The act of a third person in committing an intentional tort or crime is a superding cau of harm to another resulting therefrom,although the actor's negligent conduct created a situation which afforded an opportunity to the third person to commit such a tort or crime,unless the actor at the time of his negligent conduct realized or should have realized the likelihood that such a situation might be created,and that a third person might avail himlf of the opportunity to commit such a tort or crime.
§449Tortious or Criminal Acts the Probability of Which Makes Actor's Conduct Negligent
If the likelihood that a third person may act in a particular manner is the hazard or one of the hazards which makes the actor negligent, such an act whether innocent,negligent,intentionally tortious,or criminal does not prevent the actor from being liable for harm caud thereby.
§450Harm Incread or Accelerated by Extraordinary Force of Nature
The extraordinary operation of a force of nature,which merely increas or accelerates harm to anot
her which would otherwi have resulted from the actor's negligent conduct,does not prevent the actor from being liable for such harm.
§451Extraordinary Force of Nature Intervening to Bring About Harm Different From That Threatened by Actor's Negligence
An intervening operation of a force of nature without which the other's harm would not have resulted from the actor's negligent conduct prevents the actor from being liable for the harm,if
(a)the operation of the force of nature is extraordinary,and
(b)the harm resulting from it is of a kind different from that the likelihood of which made the actor's conduct negligent.
§452Third Person's Failure to Prevent Harm
(1)Except as stated in Subction(2),the failure of a third person to act to prevent harm to another threatened by the actor's negligent conduct is not a superding cau of such harm.
(2)Where,becau of lap of time or otherwi,the duty to prevent harm to another threatened by th
e actor's negligent conduct is found to have shifted from the actor to a third person,the failure of the third person to prevent such harm is a superding cau.
§453Function of Court
It is the exclusive function of the court to declare the existence or non-existence of rules which restrict the actor's responsibility short of making him liable for harm which his negligent conduct is a substantial factor in bringing about,and to determine the circumstances to which such rules are applicable.
Topic2-Causal Relation Affecting the Extent of Liability But Not Its Existence
§454General Principle 身或其行为方式虽存在过失，但有下列任一情形的，也不属于取代原因：
(a)行为人在作出其过失行为时，应当知道第三人可能如此行为；或
(b)一个了解行为当时状况的正常人不认为第三人的行为有何异常罕见；或
(c)介入行为是行为人行为所形成情势的正常结果，且其行为方式也不构成异乎寻常的过失。
第448条行为人的过失所促成的故意侵权或犯罪行为
第三人实施的故意侵权或犯罪行为，应视为由此对他人造成的伤害的取代原因，即使行为人的过失为第三人实施故意侵权或犯罪行为提供了机会。但是，如果行为人在行为时知道或理应知道，行为可能造成某种情势，而第三人可能借此实施故意侵权或犯罪行为，则不属于取代原因。
第449条行为人因存在侵权或犯罪的可能性而有过失
如果存在第三人依特定方式行为的可能性，而这是导致行为人构成过失的危险或之一，那么行为人不能因此而得以免除其对所产生伤害的责任，不论第三人的行为属无辜还是过失，是故意侵权还是犯罪行为。
第450条罕见自然力扩大或促进的伤害
如自然力的罕见运行仅仅扩大或促进了行为人过失行为对他人造成的伤害，则行为人不因此得以免责。
第451条罕见自然力的介入引发不同于行为人过失可能导致的伤害
如非自然力的介入，他人所受的伤害本不会因行为人的过失行为而生，则当符合下列规定时，行为人得免于就该伤害担责：
(a)自然力的运作属于异乎寻常；并且
(b)自然力导致的伤害，与行为人的过失行为可能导致的伤害，在性质上不同。
第452条第三人未能阻止伤害的发生
(1)除本条第2项规定外，第三人没有能够阻止行为人过失行为所造成的伤害威胁，不构成该伤害的取代原因。
(2)如果由于时间的推移或其他原因，行为人因其过失行为危及他人而负有的避险责任，已经移转至第三人，则第三人未能阻止伤害的发生构成取代原因。
第453条法院的职权
认定是否存在限制行为人责任的法律规则-即行为人过失是造成伤害的重要因素但行为人可免责，以及这些法律规则的适用情境，属于法庭的专属职权。
第二节影响责任的轻重而不是有无的因果关系
第454条一般原则
The rules stated in§§430-453as determining the causal relation necessary to liability are as fully applicable to establish the extent of liability as to establish its existence.
§455Acts Done During Insanity Caud by Negligent Conduct
If the actor's negligent conduct so brings about the delirium or insanit y of another as to make the actor liable for it,the actor is also liable for harm done by the other to himlf while delirious or insane,if his delirium or insanity
(a)prevents him from realizing the nature of his act and the certainty or risk of harm involved therein,or
(b)makes it impossible for him to resist an impul caud by his insanity which deprives him of his capacity to govern his conduct in accordance with reason.
§456Emotional Disturbance Resulting From an Actionable Injury or the Conduct Which Caud It
If the actor's negligent conduct has so caud any bodily harm to another as to make him liable for it,the actor is also subject to liability for
(a)fright,shock,or other emotional disturbance resulting from the bodily harm or from the conduct which caus it,and
(b)further bodily harm resulting from such emotional disturbance.
§457Additional Harm Resulting From Efforts to Mitigate Harm Caud by Negligence
If the negligent actor is liable for another's bodily injury,he is also subject to liability for any additional bodily harm resulting from normal efforts of third persons in rendering aid which the other's injury reasonably requires,irrespective of whether such acts are done in a proper or a negligent manner.
§458Dia Contracted Becau of Lowered Vitality
If the negligent actor is liable for another's injury which so lowers the other's vitality as to render him peculiarly susceptible to a dia,the actor is also liable for the dia which is contracted becau of the lowered vitality.
§459Actor's Negligence Causing Peculiar Susceptibility to Later Harm[Omitted.See460.]
[The Section is omitted.The matter is now covered by§460.]
§460Subquent Accidents Due to Impaired Physical Condition Caud by Negligence
If the negligent actor is liable for an injury which impairs the physical condition of another's body,the actor is also liable for harm sustained in a subquent accident which would not have occurred had the other's condition not been impaired,and which is a normal conquence of such impairment.
§461Harm Incread in Extent by Other's Unforeeable Physical Condition
The negligent actor is subject to liability for harm to another although a physical condition of the other which is neither known nor should be known to the actor makes the injury greater than that which the actor as a reasonable man should have foreen as a probable result of his conduct.
Topic3-Causal Relation Necessary to Make Actor's Conduct Contributory Negligence
§462Applicability of Rules Determining Liability for Harm to Another[Omitted.See465.]
[The Section is omitted.The matter is now covered by§465.]第430条至第453条关乎责任的因果关系规则，同时适用于决定责任的程度和责任的有无。
第455条在过失行为导致的精神失常期间完成的行为
行为人的过失行为致他人精神错乱或精神失常，如果行为人应对此担责的，则在下列情形下，行为人应同时对他人在此期间对其自身或其他人造成的伤害担责：
(a)精神错乱或失常使其无法认知自身行为的性质，以及其中所蕴含的危险或伤害的可能性；或
(b)精神错乱或失常使其难以抑制自身的冲动，无法控制自己，依理性而行为。
第456条可诉侵权行为或其伤害引发的情绪障碍
如果行为人的过失行为造成他人身体伤害，行为人为此而担责的，行为人同时应为下列担责：
(a)因行为人的行为或因此所受身体伤害而引发的惊吓、打击或其他情绪障碍；以及
(b)因前述情绪障碍而导致的其它身体伤害。
第457条减损努力引发的额外伤害
如果过失行为人须就他人身体伤害担责的，则第三人努力为其提供合理救助而导致额外伤害的，行为人同样应对此担责，而不论第三人的行为是否存有过失。
第458条因抵抗力减弱而患的疾病
如果过失行为人须就他人所受伤害担责的，那么当伤害导致其抵抗力减弱，异常容易患病时，则行为人同时应对由此所患疾病担责。
第459条因行为人过失而容易受到后续伤害
【本条删除；有关事项规定于第460条】
第460条身体因过失受到伤害而遭受的后续意外事故
如果过失行为人对损害他人身体状况的伤害须担责，那么行为人也要对他人在后续事故中遭受的伤害承担责任，只要这种后续伤害若非身体受损本不会发生，而且也是身体受损后的正常结果。
第461条伤害因不可预见的身体状况而加重
对方所受到的伤害，由于行为人不知道也无从知道的身体状况，超出了行为人作为一个正常人对自身行为可能后果所能预见的程度，过失行为人仍应对此担责。
第三节决定行为人行为存有与有过失的必要因果关系
第462条决定有关损害责任的法律规则的适用性
【本条删除；有关事项规定于第465条】
