Social Psychology scientifically studies how we think about, influence, and
relate to one another
Social Thinking
- Involves thinking about others, especially when they engage in doing things that are unexpected.
Examples:
1.Does his abnteeism signify illness, laziness, or a stressful work atmosphere?
2.Was the horror of 9/11 the work of crazed evil people or ordinary people
谷歌翻译朗读corrupted by life events?
Attributions
Attribution Theory: Fritz Heider (1958) suggested that we have a tendency to give causal explanations for someone’s behavior, often by crediting either the situation or the person’s disposition.
Dispositional Attributes: an event or person’s behavior is due to personal factors such as feelings, personality traits, or abilities.
Situational Attributes: an event or person’s behavior is due to external influence from the environment or culture.
Fundamental Attribution Error
The tendency to overestimate the impact of personal disposition and underestimate the impact of the situations in analyzing the behaviors of others.
Ex: We e Joe as quiet, shy, and introverted most of the time, but with friends he is very talkative, loud, and extroverted.
Effects of Attribution
How we explain
someone’s behavior
affects how we
panic attackreact to it.
Attitude
A belief and feeling that predispos a person to respond in a particular way to objects, other people, and events.
Ex: If we believe a person is mean, we may feel dislike for the person and act in an unfriendly manner.
Our attitudes predict our behaviors imperfectly becau other factors, including the external situation, also influence behavior.
Not only do people stand for what they believe in (attitude), they start believing in what they stand for.
Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon: The tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request.
Door-in-the-face phenomenon: the tendency for people who have rejected an initial large request to agree to a smaller request prented after. The smaller request appears more reasonable.
Persuasion:a direct attempt to influence other people’s attitudes or views.
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•Two basic ways to persuade people:
–Central route: u evidence and logical arguments to persuade people
–Peripheral route: attempts to associate objects, people, or events with positive or negative cues
•The most persuasive messages u both routes.
Low-balling: Persuasion and lling technique in which an item or rvice is offered at a lower price than is actually intended to be charged, after which the price is raid to increa profits.
Role-Playing and Attitudes
Zimbardo (1972) assigned the roles of guards and prisoners to random students and found that guards and prisoners developed role- appropriate attitudes.
Cognitive dissonance
Tension experienced when our attitudes and actions are oppod.
To relieve ourlves of this tension we bring our attitudes clor to our actions (Festinger, 1957).
Self-Serving Bias: We accept responsibility for good deeds and success more than for bad deeds and failures.
Conformity adjusting one’s behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard
Asch (1955) Suggestibility is a subtle type of
conformity, adjusting our behavior
or thinking toward some group
standard.
Conditions that Strengthen 1. One is made to feel incompetent or incure
Conformity 2. The group has at least three people.
3. The group is unanimous.
4. One admires the group’s status and attractiveness.
5. One has no prior commitment or respon.
fascinating6. The group obrves one’s behavior.
7. One’s culture strongly encourages respect for a social
standard.
Reasons for Conformity
Normative Social Influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval
Influence: or avoid rejection. A person may respect normative behavior
becau there may be a vere price to pay if not respected.
Informative Social The group may provide valuable information, but stubborn
Influence: people will never listen to others.
Baron et. al. (1996) students did an eyewitness id task. If the
task was easy lineup exposure 5 c.),
conformity was low in comparison to a
difficult (1/2 c. exposure) task.
pilotsObedience obeying direct command from another person, often a person of
authority
Stanley Milgram (1963)
designed a study that investigates the
effects of authority on obedience.
Participants were told to shock others
when they gave the wrong respon and
to keep increasing level of shock.
A third of the individuals in Milgram’s
study resisted social coercion.
Group Influence How do groups affect our behavior? Social psychologists
study various groups:
One person affecting another
Families
Teams
Committees
Social facilitation:Refers to improved performance on tasks in the prence of
others. Triplett (1898) noticed cyclists’ race times were
faster when they competed against others than when they
just raced against the clock.
Social Loafing The tendency of an individual in a group to exert less effort
toward attaining a common goal than when tested
individually (Latané, 1981).
Deindividuation The loss of lf-awareness and lf-restraint in group
situations that foster arousal and anonymity.
Group Polarization enhances a group’s prevailing attitudes through aswingman
discussion. If a group is like-minded, discussion
strengthens its prevailing opinions and attitudes. Groupthink A mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for
harmony in a decision-making group overrides the realistic
appraisal of alternatives.
EX. Attack on Pearl Harbor; Kennedy and the Cuban;
报关员培训
Missile Crisis; Watergate Cover-up; Chernobyl Reactor Social Relations
Prejudice Simply called “prejudgment,” it is an unjustifiable (usually
negative) attitude toward a group and its members.
Prejudice is often directed towards different cultural,
ethnic, or gender groups. Works at the conscious and
unconscious level and thus is often a knee-jerk respon.
Components of prejudice
1. Beliefs (stereotypes)
2. Emotions (hostility, envy, fear)
3. Predisposition to act (to discriminate)
Two types of prejudice
Race Nine out of ten white respondents were slow when
英文的自我介绍
responding to words like “peace” or “paradi” when they
saw a black individual’s photo compared to a white
individual’s photo (Hugenberg & Bodenhaun, 2003).
Gender Most women still live in more poverty than men. About
100,000,000 women are missing in the world. There is a
preference for male children in China and India, even with
x-lected abortion outlawed.
Ethnocentrism the belief in the inherent superiority of one's own ethnic
group or culture.
Social Roots of Prejudice
1. Social Inequalities: Prejudice develops when p eople have money, power, and
prestige, and others do not. Social inequality increas prejudice.
2. Social Divisions:
Ingroup: People with whom one shares a common identity.
Outgroup: Tho perceived as different from one’s ingroup.
Ingroup Bias: The tendency to favor one’s own group.
dlfEmotional Roots of Prejudice
Scapegoating: Prejudice provides an outlet for anger [emotion] by providing
someone to blame. After 9/11 many people lashed out against innocent Arab-
Americans.
Cognitive Roots of Prejudice
1.Categorization: One way we simplify our world is to categorize. We categorize
people into groups by stereotyping them.
2.Vivid Cas: In vivid cas such as the 9/11 attacks, terrorists can feed
stereotypes or prejudices (terrorism). Most terrorists are non-Muslims.
3.The just-world phenomenon: The tendency of people to believe the world is just,
and people get what they derve and derve what they get
Psychology of Attraction
1.Proximity: Geographic nearness is a powerful predictor of friendship. Repeated
exposure to novel stimuli increas their attraction (mere exposure effect).
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2.Physical Attractiveness: Once proximity affords contact, the next most important
thing in attraction is physical appearance.
3.Similarity: Similar views among individuals caus the bond of attraction to
strengthen.
Romantic Love
Passionate Love: An aroud state of inten
positive absorption in another, usually prent
