Description
Wayfinding encompass the information-gathering and decision-making process people u to orient themlves and move through space; simply put, how people get from one location to another. Wayfinding design is a human-centered approach that builds on the findings of rearch in cognition and environmental psychology to design built spaces and products that facilitate the movement of people through urban ttings and individual buildings. Successful design of wayfinding systems allows people to (1) determine their location within a tting; (2) determine their destination; (3) develop a plan to take them from their location to their destination; and (4) execute the plan and negotiate any required changes (Mayor’s Office for People with Disabilities: 43). Architectural Wayfinding Design and Information Wayfinding Design? are mutually reinforcing and complementary design strategies for creating successful wayfinding systems, which require the collaboration of architects, graphic designers, and management to achieve coordination of internal building and external site design features. Architectural wayfinding design address the built components of wayfinding design, including spatial planning, articulation of form-giving features, circulation systems, and environmental communication. Information wayfinding design encompass all nsory-bad information systems, and, more recently, GIS-bad systems.
Importance
Successful wayfinding design is integral to universal design becau it fosters easy comprehension and u of built entities (region, city, neighborhood, building, park, landscape feature). It includes overall spatial organization of the tting, articulation of form-giving features, individual architectural and environmental features, and information provision. Design of building features can assist urs to find their way and maintain their n of orientation, factors that contribute substantially to their satisfaction and frequency of u of a built tting.
Well-timed delivery of information is also critical to wayfinding, but new approaches concentrate on innovations in built form, architectural messages and wayfinding devices to reduce signage, which can be confusing or unsuccessful when layered on poorly designed site or architectural features. Signage is no substitute for good design; however it is often necessary as a post-occupational strategy or with the evolution of building usage (Peponis, Zimring, and Choi: p. 560). The designer should remember, however, that the wayfinder is concerned principally with how the route is structured rather than with the environment through which it pass, so that environmental features may only be learned to prompt turns or mark distances along gments (Golledge, 1999: 9). Successful wayfinding systems increa ur satisfaction and frequency of u. Additionally, reducin中文译德文
g capability demands can widen the group of potential urs by lowering the frustration and stress of urs, increasing building friendliness and productivity, and reducing danger and hazard to urs.
Good wayfinding design is directed at the broad univer of urs: people with a variety of perceptual abilities, bilingual or multi-lingual populations, children and aging urs. Global population trends have stimulated new interest in providing for reduced abilities related to aging in universal design generally, such as reduced visual ability, memory loss, physical deterioration (reduced endurance, strength, and balance, requiring motorized compensation in fast-moving environments like airline terminals. Wayfinding strategies should communicate effectively to the broadest group possible, including people with a wide range of nsory, physical, language and intellectual abilities; social and cultural backgrounds; age, gender, and stature differences (Arthur and Passini, 1992, Chapter 8; Lavine, 2003: 54; Orleans, 1973; Stea and Blaut, 1973; Weber and Charlton, 2001; Allen, 1999).
Women tend to have less spatial confidence than men (Lawton et al, 1996 and 2001; Lawton and Kallai, 2002; Frank, 2002) and rely on localized landmarks for wayfinding, while men u globalized configuration strategies to find their way or give directions (Bever, 1992; Couclelis, 1996). Since many aspects of spatial cognition and reprentation are learned and shared by societies, age-relate
d and cultural differences in spatial construction and description, reprentation, and wayfinding are also wide (Downs and Liben, 1985; Suzuki and Wakabayashi, 2005).
The designer needs to consider other, more profound human differences. For example, while humans learn routes unidirectionally in a laboratory, in practice they learn routes in both directions, coming and going. Unidirectional learning is the primary way moderately retarded persons learn routes (Golledge, Parnicky, and Rayner, 1980), and also more common in some mentally able blind or visually impaired persons becau their orientation and mobility training teaches only route following rather than layout learning (Welsh and Blasch, 1980, cited in Golledge 1999).
Despite its demonstrated importance to building u, costs, and safety, wayfinding receives less than its due in planning, rearch and building evaluation. Often the investment in wayfinding systems is less than that devoted to amenities like art and furnishings. Planning for wayfinding systems begins at the earliest stage of design, and often incorporates participation of ur groups. Similarly, post-construction evaluation can identify further problems of wayfinding, but wayfinding systems are often not evaluated until a rious problem occurs.
The documented cost of being lost is real: 1) lost staff time; 2) reduced staff concentration caud by
the need to provide directions or other interventions; 3) lost business and dissatisfaction due to frustration and ill-will of urs; 4) costly misd appointments or delayed meetings; 5) additional curity staff and traffic management costs; 6) compensatory environmental communications systems; 7) potential law suits surrounding lack of safety and accessibility; 8) danger to urs wandering into limited access areas of buildings; and 9) injury and death during emergency situations (Arthur and Passini, 1992; Carpman and Grant, 1993 and 2002; Zimring, 1990).
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Finding one’s way in a building or site is a critical task. The stress caud by getting lost and the potential impact on accomplishing one’s goals makes this activity a particularly
important concern for all building urs. Buildings should be designed to accommodate infrequent visitors as well as regular building urs, and people with nsory limitations, an especially vulnerable group. For example, people with hearing loss and communications impairments may find it difficult to obtain directions from knowledgeable inhabitants, and people with visual impairments cannot rely on visual information. Enumerating the capability demands placed on the ur by wayfinding features or products helps identify groups unable to u a system or its features no matter what the reason (Coleman, Lebbon, Clarkson, and Keates, 2003).
strawberry怎么读In his influential 1960 book, The Image of the City, architect Kevin Lynch first ud the term “Way-finding” to describe how individuals navigate the city using its paths, edges, landmarks, nodes, and districts. Cognitive rearch in the 1970s expanded Lynch’s static concept of spatial orientation into a dynamic, process-oriented understanding of wayfinding that is better aligned with the realities of human information gathering and decision-making. While Lynch’s pioneering rearch on the spatial image of the city has been contested in its specifics by later rearchers (e Downs and Stea, 1973: 79-85), most of the elements he identified as esntial to the formation individual mental images of cities (or cognitive maps, to u the term coined by Tolman in 1948) are still acknowledged as important design considerations for architects and urban planners alike. In the two decades following the publication of Lynch’s book, rearchers sought patterns in architecture related to human behavior and the formation of cognitive patterns and maps, rearching how the layout of built structures influenced human emotions and movement. Christopher Alexander and his collaborators published two books in the late 1970s (A Pattern Language, 1977, and The Timeless Way of Building, 1979) that still find attentive audiences. In Architecture: Form, Space and Order (1979; reissued without much change in 1996), Francis D.K. Ching’s describes the influence of built form and architectural design and space on human behavior and identifies patterns of movement in built structures motivated by qualities of architectural space. The enduring popularity of the works
suggests that they succeeded in enunciating qualities of wayfinding design that are still valid. In a parallel trend, other rearchers were developing principles of human-oriented product design (Norman, 1988), many of which are important to wayfinding design.
八年级上英语单词表In 1992, University of Montreal architect and environmental psychologist Romedi Passini collaborated with the late Toronto designer Paul Arthur on Wayfinding: People, Signs, and Architecture in 1992 (reissued in 2002), a minal work that the codified architectural and cognitive rearch on wayfinding. Arthur and Passini (1992) were the first to distinguish architectural and information components of wayfinding, compile relevant evidence, and translate it into design guidance.
The vast field of human cognition and cognitive mapping rearch has been covered by veral recent literature reviews (e Kitchin and Freundschuh, 2000 for psychological and geographical literature, and Burgess, Jeffery, and O’Keefe, 1999 for neuroscience; also Golledge, 1999; Golledge and Stimson, 1997; Hart and Moore, 1973, Gould, 1973; and Tversky, 2003). The rearchers subscribe to the theory that people form ‘cognitive maps’ of their surroundings, acquiring, storing, and refining information in a schematized and structured form.
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Arthur and Passini found that wayfinding is more than generating a static mental map of a spatial situation as suggested by Lynch. Humans make decisions as they move through a space that depend on information and cues received as they move. Environments are complex entities perceived by a person through activities; “environmental perception is…directed and purpoful perception” (Arthur and Passini, 1992: 33). A wayfinding decision is behavior (turn right, go up, look for information) in respon to an environmental entity (interction, stairs, billboard) (Arthur and Passini, 1992: 31). Information that is not directly applicable or relevant information that is buried within a complex body of information may not be perceived at all or be screened out and not remembered, making “information at the wrong place is as good as no information at all” (Arthur and Passini, 1992: 34)六级改革
The analytical techniques developed since the late 1970s to identify and collect topological information and compare ttings are known as
{[Wayfinding.SpaceSyntaxAnalysis | space syntax analysis]]. While it was initially developed by Hillier and Hann in 1984, it was first ud for wayfinding rearch in 1990 (Peponis, Zimring, and Choi, 1990; Haq and Girotto, 2003). Prior rearch on the relationship between humans and their built environments had focud on how people acquire knowledge rather than on actual variations in
their environment. As a result, there was “a scarcity of theories and analytic techniques to deal with the architectural environment as a knowable morphology” (Peponis, Zimring and Choi, p. 556). Space syntax rearchers t about applying techniques of space syntax analysis “to describe and quantify structural properties of building layout” (Peponis, Zimring and Choi, pa. 556).
As early as 1990, the rearchers determined that “after a relatively brief exposure to a building, people tend to consistently direct themlves toward spaces from which the rest of the building is more easily accessible. Thus, they em to acquire an understanding of the configurational properties rather than merely relying on landmarks, signs, or other cues” (Peponis, Zimring and Choi, pa. 556). Additional experimental and obrvational studies of the relationship between environment and cognitive maps have determined that while three class of spatial relations form the content of spatial cognition—topological; projective, and Euclidian or metric relations—cognitive space is primarily topological, dependent on relative location of places rather than their preci direction or distance (Penn, 2003: 30; Haq and Zimring, 2003).
Wayfinding rearch is complex for many reasons. While they rely on mental maps more than any other information for wayfinding, most humans are unaware of their wayfinding strategies, and find it difficult to report them (Golledge, 1999: 27, 34). Wayfinding is “purpo-dependent, and it is difficult t
秘密英文o attribute any specific cognitive psychological process to wayfinding generally” (e Golledge,1999, p. 27-31 for a discussion of purpo-dependent variations in wayfinding criteria). Most current rearch focus on consolidating information on general principles of wayfinding and space cognition; applications in specific building types; wayfinding issues related to specific impairments or population groups (visual, hearing, development, cognitive, situational, literacy, mobility impairment; aging populations, children, gender- and culture-bad differences, people with dementia); and new developments in wayfinding products?.
Wayfinding issues surface at all levels of scale in planning: regional, city, neighborhood, street systems, public transportation, parking, building complexes, infrastructure and amenities, and individual building layout. Rearch has shown that wayfinding strategies are different at different scales. In outdoor situations, properties of spatial layout are more important than program in determining patterns of movement, while inside buildings, movement “can be understood primarily in terms of specific purpofulness rather than spatial regularity” (Peponis and Wineman, 2002: 280).
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Urban wayfinding systems u such things as the design and organization of landscaping, urban amenities, and buildings as spatial indicators. In buildings, movement control can be “strong” or “weak depending on the nature of the building and the purpo of the organization, although spatial l
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ayout and signals play a strong role for first-time visitors (e Architectural Wayfinding Design for more information on the issues).
Human cognitive maps of countries, regions, cities, and buildings are discontinuous; distorted by experience that transforms distance and direction; schematicized by psychosocial and idiosyncratic factors; heavily invested with psychological and symbolic meaning; augmented by nonexistent phenomenon; and vary culturally and by group differences (gender, age, economics status). For example, urban residents of higher socioeconomic status tend to have more accurate and complete spatial maps than poorer residents or immigrants (Orleans, 1973).
Cognitive perception varies in its extensiveness, clarity and completeness, so it is important for the designer to rearch potential urs whenever possible (Downs and Stea, 1973: Chapter 1). However, wayfinding is not just a matter of individual perception, cognition, and behavior, but “a macro issue involving the physical and operational environments in which it occurs” (Carpman and Grant, 2002: 427. While design is an art, wayfinding principles come from the ur, from behavioral and psychological studies of real people (evidence). The evidence-bad principles of wayfinding must be translated into built and graphic form through spatial planning and environmental communication. Related Guidelines
Architects and designers are relative late comers to wayfinding, long a topic of concern to environmental psychologists, and can benefit from acquiring the more-specialized, in-depth knowledge that has accumulated in other and related fields. Guidelines are no substitute for more comprehensive rearch into wayfinding, spatial cognition, and space syntax, but can rve to orient the designer developing a wayfinding plan and maintaining it over time in the face of changes in the urban space, the building, and its occupants or urs (Carpman and Grant, 2002: 427).
Donald Norman’s The Design of Everyday Things is a good starting point for general design guidelines to make any product or space more ur-friendly. Some general guidelines for wayfinding design are found below. For more specific guidelines, go to the architectural wayfinding? and information wayfinding? topic pages.天津dj
