⼟⽊⼯程专业英语翻译
第⼀单元
Fundamentally, engineering is an end-product-oriented discipline that is innovative, cost-conscious and mindful of human factors. It is concerned with the creation of new entities, devices or methods of solution: a new process, a new material, an improved power source, a more efficient arrangement of tasks to accomplish a desired goal or a new structure. Engineering is also more often than not concerned with obtaining economical solutions. And, finally, human safety is always a key consideration.
从根本上，⼯程是⼀个以最终产品为导向的⾏业，它具有创新、成本意识，同时也注意到⼈为因素。它与创建新的实体、设备或解决⽅案有关：新⼯艺、新材料、⼀个改进的动⼒来源、任务的⼀项更有效地安排，⽤以完成所需的⽬标或创建⼀个新的结构。⼯程是也不仅仅关⼼获得经济的解决⽅案。最终，⼈类安全才是⼀个最重要的考虑因素。
Engineering is concerned with the u of abstract scientific ways of thinking and of defining real world problems. The u of idealizations and development of procedures for establishing bounds within which behavior can be ascertained are part of the process.
⼯程关⼼的是，使⽤抽象的科学⽅法思考和定义现实世界的问题。理想化的使⽤和发展建⽴可以确定⾏为的边界的程序，是过程的⼀部分。
Many problems, by their very nature, can’t be fully described—even after the fact, much less at the outt. Yet acceptable engineering solutions to the problems must be found which satisfy the defined needs. Engineering, then, frequently concerns the determination of possible solutions within a context of limited data. Intuition or judgment is a key factor in establishing possible alternative strategies, process, or solutions. And this, too, is all a part of engineering.
很多的问题，就其本⾝的性质⽽⾔，不能完全被描述——即使这⼀事实，在其开始之前。然⽽还必须找到对于这些问题可接受的⼯程解决⽅案，来满⾜预定的需求。直觉或判断是建⽴可能的替代策略、流程或解决⽅案的关键因素。。⽽这也是⼯程的⼀部分。
Becau of the variety and kinds of input that must be taken into account at each and every stage in the solution process
,engineering problems are most often approached in what can be referred to as a hierarchically structured quential ain things must be known ,and the influence of the ascertained before subquent steps in the solution process can be approached.
在每⼀个阶段的求解过程中必须考虑由于不同类型的输⼊产⽣的影响⼯程问题通常以什么可被称
report为层级结构顺序决定process.必须知道某些东西，以及它们的影响在随后的步骤确定求解过程能够到达。
Emphasizing one of the concepts alluded to above,engineering is most often concerned with the development of permissible alternatives not necessarily the identification of a unique
solution .true,aesthetics ,or other considerations may eventually dictate a particular ,singular choice from among veral or even many possibilities ,but tho acceptable ones will have been established prior to that
final stage ,using normal engneering methods .
强调提到概念之⼀以上学历,⼯程是最经常关注发展选择允许不⼀定识别有唯⼀解.真理，美学、或其他的考虑可能最终决定某⼀特定，单⼀的选择在⼏个甚⾄更多的可能性，但是那些接受已经确⽴的之前最后⼀期⼯程中使⽤普通的⽅法。
Civil engineering is one of the most diver branches of engineering. The civil engineer plans, designs, constructs, and maintains a large variety of structures and facilities for public, commercial a
nd industrial u. The structures include residential, office, and factory buildings; highways, railways, airports, tunnels, bridges, harbors, channels, and pipelines. They also include many other facilities that are a part of the transportation systems of most countries, as well as wage and waste disposal systems that add to our convenience and safeguard our health.
⼟⽊⼯程是⼯程的最多样化的分⽀机构之⼀。⼟⽊⼯程师计划、设计、施⼯，和维护⼤量的结构和公共、商业和⼯业使⽤的设施。这些结构包括住宅，办公室和⼯⼚⼤厦；公路、铁路、机场、隧道、桥梁、港⼝、渠道和管道。在其他⼤多数的国家它们还包括运输系统许多其他设施，以及将为我们的⽣活带来便利的和维护我们的健康污⽔及废物处理系统。
The term “civil engineer” did not come into u until about 1750, when John Smeaton, the builder of famous Eddystone lighthou near Plymouth, England, is said to have begun calling himlf a “civil engineer” to distinguish himlf from the military engineers of his time. However, the profession is as old as civilization.
直到⼤约1750年，⼈们才开始使⽤“⼟⽊⼯程师”这⼀术语。约翰.斯密顿在英格兰普利茅斯附近，建造了著名的埃迪斯通灯塔
的建造师，开始⾃称为“⼟⽊⼯程师"来将⾃⼰与当时的军事⼯程师区分开。然⽽，⼟⽊⼯程这个职业
却像⽂明⼀样古⽼。
In ancient Egypt the simplest mechanical principles and devices were ud to construct many temples and pyramids that are still standing, including the great pyramid at Giza and the temple of Amon-Ra at Karnak. The great pyramid, 481 feet(146.6 meters)high, is made of 2.25 million stone blocks having an average weight of more than 1.5tons (1.4 metric tons). Great numbers of men were ud in the construction of such monuments. The Egyptians also made obelisks by cutting huge blocks of stone, some weighing as much as 1000 tons (900 metric tons). Cutting tools of hard bronze were ud.
古埃及⼈⽤最简单的机械原理和装置建造了许多⾄今仍矗⽴的庙宇和⾦字塔，包括吉萨⼤⾦字塔和在卡纳克的Amon-Ra的寺庙。这个⼤⾦字塔，481英尺（146.6 ⽶）⾼，由2250000个⽯块组成，⽯块的平均重量超过1.5吨（1.4 吨）。建造如此的纪念性建筑使⽤了⼤量的⼈⼒。埃及⼈也作了⼀些重达1000吨(900吨)的⽯头的⼤块切割的⽅尖塔。硬青铜的切削⼑具在其中使⽤到了。
The Egyptians built cauways and roads for transporting stone from the quarries to the Nile. The large blocks of stone that were erected by the Egyptians were moved by using levers, inclined planes, rollers, and sledges.
为了从采⽯场向尼罗河运输⽯材埃及⼈建造了长堤和道路。由埃及⼈竖设的⼤块⽯头通过使⽤拉杆、斜平⾯、滚⼦和雪橇来移动。
The Egyptians were primarily interested in the know-how of construction; They had very little interest in why-for of u .In contrast, the Greeks made great strides in introducing theory into engineering problems during the 6th to 3rd centuries B.C. They developed an abstract knowledge of lines, angles, surfaces, and solids rather than referring to specific objects. The geometric ba for Greek building construction included figures such as the square, rectangle, and triangle.
pull
埃及⼈主要对如何建造感兴趣；他们对为什么这么使⽤没有什么太多的兴趣。相反，在公元前六世纪到公元前三世纪希腊⼈取得了巨⼤的进步于⼯程理论的推⼴。他们发展了线、⾓度、⾯，和实体的抽象的知识，⽽不是与特定的对象产⽣联系。希腊建筑施⼯的⼏何基础包括数字如正⽅形、矩形和三⾓形。
The Greek architekton was usually the designer, as well as the builder, of architectural and engineering masterpieces. He was an architect and engineer. Craftsmen, masons, and sculptors worked under his supervision. In the classical period of Greece all important buildings were built of limestone or marble; the Parthenon, for example, was built of marble.
希腊建筑师通常是建筑⼯程杰作的设计师同时也是建造师。他既是⼀个建筑师也是⼯程师。⼯匠、⽯匠和雕塑家在他的监督下⼯作。在希腊古典时期所有重要建筑物是由⽯灰⽯或⼤理⽯建造的；以帕台农神庙为例，由⼤理⽯建成的。
Modern Civil Engineering
现代⼟⽊⼯程
航程英文
和⼯程中其他分⽀⼀样，⼟⽊⼯程是这样⼀门学科，需要有通过学习得来的数学和⾃然科学的知识，经验和实践被合理的应⽤于开发新⽅法来经济的利⽤材料和⾃然的⼒量为⼈类所⽤。
⽬前的⼟⽊⼯程师的任务涉及空间的开发，热核能量的使⽤，弹道导弹设施的建造，以及空⽓和⽔污染的控制—这些材料和施⼯作业体系的发展在10年前是遥不可及的。早期以建造桥梁，公路，运河，⾼架渠，⼤坝，机场和⽔利分配系统为职业的⼟⽊⼯程师将⼀直被需要。更好的⽅法将会被开发来完成
以前的任务，但是新的更复杂的困难将继续出现来挑战他。
分⽀⼟⽊⼯程师的技术活动是各种各样的，与ASCE的专业划分是⼀致的，ASCE在美国是⽤来划分⼟⽊⼯程领域的。具体划分有输⽓，建造，⼯程机械，公路，⽔⼒学，灌溉和排⽔，管道，供能，结构，
测绘，城区规划和发展，以及航路和海港。
这些专业划分的招募说明了ASCE的各组成主要是建筑⽅⾯的。所有专业划分的活动都包括建造，尽管不是他们主要的任务。建筑仍然是⼟⽊⼯程师主要的⼯作。
教育美国⼟⽊⼯程学科学⼠学位通常需要⾼中毕业后四年的学习，尽管有些学校需要进⾏五年的课程学习。普遍认为需要更先进的专业和科学的训练，伴同更宽⼴的教育，包括⼀定的社会⼈⽂教育。⼟⽊⼯程四年的学⼠学位和四年适当的⼯程经验将会使⼀个年轻⼈有申请注册专业⼯程师的能⼒。
许可证⼟⽊⼯程师在保护公众远离那些不称职的新⼿⼯程师⽅⾯发挥了重要的作⽤，1907年在美国怀俄明州，对第⼀个关于注册⼯程师州许可证条款的通过，⼟⽊⼯程师也扮演了领导性的⾓⾊，现在所有的州都有这样的法律；波多黎各，巴拿马运河地带，哥伦⽐亚地区同样有许可条款。在1920年，注册专业⼯程师的周⽴委员会建⽴了⼀个组织，叫全美州⽴⼯程验收委员会。在1967年，这个名字被简称为国家⼯程验收委员会。
第三单元
Both steel and cement，the two most important construction materials of modern times，were introduced in the mineteenth
iciba
century.Steel,basically an alloy of iron and a small amount of carbon,had been made up to that time by a laborious process that restricted it to such special us as sword blades.After the invention of the Bssnmer process in1858,steel was available in large quantities at low prices.The enormous advantage of steel is its tensile strength;that is,it does mot lo its strength when it under a calculated degree of tension,a force which,as we have en,tends to pull apart many materials.New alloys have further incread the strength of steel and eliminnated some of its problems,such as fatigue ,whech is a tendency for it to weaken as a result of continual changes in stress.
钢筋和⽔泥作为现代的两个最重要的结构材料，在19世纪时已经被引进。钢筋的主要成分是铁的合⾦和少量的碳。在那个时候它经历过了⼀个艰⾟的过程后呗发明了，它被抵制做成像有特殊⽤途的⼑剑。在1856年，贝塞尔法促进了以低廉的价格的钢的⽣产。钢主要的有利⽅⾯是它的抗拉强度。当它在确定拉⼒作⽤下，它不会失去强度，同时就像我们所看到的这个⼒将会拉开许多其它⾦属。新的合⾦已经更好地提⾼了钢的强度并消除了它的许多⽑病，想在应⼒频繁改变作⽤下产⽣的疲劳⽽使它的强度变弱。
They also complement each other in another way:they have almost the same rate of contraction and expansion.They therefore can work together in situations where both compression and tension are factors.Steel rods are embedded in concrete to make reinforced concrete in concrete beans or struct
ures where tension will develop.Concrete and steel also form such a strong bone---the force that unites them---that the steel cannot slip within the concrete.Still another advantage is that steel does not rust in concrete.Acid corrodes steel,whereas concrete has an alkaline chemical reaction,the opposite of acid.
由于它们的收缩和膨胀系数⼏乎相同，这也是它们相互补充不⾜的另⼀个⽅法。所以它们可以在同时有压⼒和拉⼒作⽤的情况下⼀起起作⽤。钢筋嵌⼊在混凝⼟中以提⾼混凝⼟梁或结构中的混凝⼟的强度，混凝⼟和钢筋也可以在⼒的作⽤下，使他们形成⾮常强的粘结，钢筋也不会在混凝⼟中发⽣滑动。另⼀个优点是钢筋不易在混凝⼟中⽣锈。酸腐蚀钢筋，然⽽跟酸相对的碱也会发⽣碱化学反应。
The adoption of structural steel and reinforced concrete caud major changes in traditional construcion practices.It was no longer necessary to u thick walls of stone or brick for multistory builidings,and it became much simpler to build fire-resistant floors.Both the changes rved to reduce the cost of construction.It also became possible to erect buildings with greater heights ans longer spans.
钢结构和钢筋混凝⼟的采⽤在传统建筑⽅式中产⽣巨⼤的改变。不再需⽤沉重的⽤⽯头或砖做成的墙来建造⾼层建筑，并且它使建造防⽕楼层变得更加简单。这两个变化都可以减少建造的经费。它也让建造更⾼⾼度和更长跨度的建筑成为了可能。
Since the weight of modern structures is carried by the steel or concrete frame,the walls do not support the building.They have become curtain walls,which keep out the weather and let in light.In the earlier steel or concrete frame building,the curtain walls were generally made of masonry;the had the solid look of bearing
walls.Today,however,curtain walls are often made of lightweight materials such as glass,aluminum,or plastic,in various combinations.
⾃从现代建筑的重量⽤钢或者混凝⼟结构来承重，墙体已经不再⽤来⽀撑建筑。它们已经变成⽤来调节⽓候和采光的幕墙。在更早的钢或者混凝⼟框架建筑中，幕墙⼀般⽤⽯材制作。它们具有承重墙结实的性能。然⽽如今，幕墙通常⽤像玻璃、铝或者塑料等轻质材料做成⽤于各种连接中。
Another advance in steel construction is the method of fastening together the beams.For many years the standard method was riveting.A rivet is a bolt with a head that looks like a blunt screw without threads.It is heated,placed in holes through the pieces of steel,and a cond head is formed at the other end by hammering it to hold it in place.Riveting has now largely been replaced by welding,the joining together of pieces of steel by melting a steel material between them rnder high heat.
钢结构的另⼀种改进是将梁紧固在⼀起的⽅法。多年来标准⽅法是铆接技术。铆钉是⼀种有端部的螺
栓看起来像上⾯没有螺纹钝螺杆。它被加热并通过钢⽚放置在孔⾥，并且⽤锤敲击另⼀段的第⼆个端部使其固定到相应位置。铆钉已经⼴泛被焊接取代，焊接是在⾼温下使钢⽚熔化并将它们粘结。
Prestresd concrete has made it possible to develop buildings with unusual shapes,like some of the modern sports arenas,with large spaces unbroken by any obstructing supports.The us for this relatively new structural method are constantly being developde.
mojo预应⼒混凝⼟已经使建造各种奇形怪状的建筑成为了可能，像⼀些具有不受任何⽀撑物阻挡视线的⼤空间的现代体育场馆。对于这种相对⽐较新的结构⽅法的使⽤⼀直在不断发展。
The current tendency is to develop lighter materials.Aluminum,for example,weighs much less than steel but has many of the same properties.Aluminum beams have already been ud for bridge construction and for the framework of the framework of a few buildings.
现在的趋势是发展更轻的材料。例如铝的重量⽐钢轻很多但它们有很多共同的特性。铝梁已经被⽤于桥梁建筑和少量框架结构
的建筑中。
Lightweight concretes,another example,are now rapidlly developing throughout the world.They are u
d for their thermal insulation.The three types are illustrated below:
(a)Concrete made with lightweight aggregates;
(b)Aerated concrete(US gas concretes) foamed by whisking or by some chemical process during casting;
commonn(c)No-fines concretes.
另⼀个例⼦，如今轻质混凝⼟在全世界正在快速发展。它们被⽤来隔热保温。三个类型说明如下：（a）混凝⼟⽤轻质⾻料做成
（b）加⽓混凝⼟在铸造期间通过搅拌或⼀些化学⽅法使其充满⽓泡。
（c）混合混凝⼟
All three types are ud for their insulating properties,mainly in housing,where they give high comfort in cold climates and a low cost of cooling in hot climates.In housing,the relative weakness of lightweight concrete walls is unimportant,but it matters in roof slabs,floor slabs and beams.In some locations,some lightweight aggregates cost little more than the best den aggregates and a large n
umber of floor slabs have therefore been built of lightweight aggregate concrete purely for its weight saving,with mo thought of its insulation value.
三种特性都被⽤做它们的隔热性能。主要⽤于⼀些房屋，在冷的⽓候下可以给予⾼度的舒适并且在热的⽓候下可以以较低的花费降温。在⼀些住宅，轻质混凝⼟墙的相对弱点并不重要，但是对屋顶板、地板和梁影响很⼤。在⼀些位置，轻质⾻料⽐更致密⾻料花费更少并且由于它节省重量许多地板只⽤轻质⾻料制作，⽽不考虑它的隔热性能。
The lightweigh aggregate reduces the floor dead lad by about 20 per cen resulting in considerable savings in the floor steel in every floor and the roof,as well as in the column steel and(less) in the foundations.Ome London contractor prefers to u lightweight aggregate becau it gives him the same weight reduction in the floor slab as the u of hollow tiles,with simpler organization and therefore higher speed and profit.The insulation value of the lightweight aggregate is only important in the roof insulation,which is greatly improved.
轻质⾻料可以减少楼板上约20%的静荷载，这是由于它在每个楼板个屋顶减少了许多楼板钢筋的使⽤，同时柱⼦⾥的钢筋和地基⾥也是。⼀个伦敦的承包商喜欢⽤轻质混凝⼟，因为它使⽤楼板的空⼼⽡会帮助他减少同样重量、并且简单组织，从⽽提⾼速度和利润. 具有隔热价值的轻⾻料仅仅是在屋顶隔热重要，这是屋顶保温很⼤的改善。
第四单元
Introdution
Mechanics of Materials deals with the respon of various bodies, usually called members, to applied forces. In Mechanics of engineering Materials the members have shapes that either exist in actual structures or are being considered for their suitability as parts of propod engineering structures. The materials in the members have properties that are characteristic of commonly ud engineering materials such as steel, aluminum, concrete, and wood.
材料⼒学处理各种实体的⼒学反应，这些实体通常被称作构件。在⼯程材料的⼒学中，构件所拥有的形状，在实际结构中已经存在，或者正在考虑其是否适合作为拟议的⼯程结构的部分。在构件中的材料有常⽤⼯程材料具有的普遍特性，如钢、铝、混凝⼟和⽊材具有的特性。
As you can e already from the variety of materials, forces, and shapes mentioned, Mechanics of Engineering Materials is of interest to all fields of engineering. The engineer us the principles of Mechanics of Materials to determine if the material properties and the dimensions of a member are adequate to ensure that it can carry its load safely and without excessive distortion. In general, then, we are interested in both the safe load that a member can carry and the associated deformation. En
gineering design would be a simple process if the designer could take into consideration the loads and the mechanical properties of the materials, manipulate an equation, and arrive at suitable dimensions. Design is ldom that simple. Usually, on the basis of experience, the designer lects a trial member and then does an analysis to e if that member meets the specified requirements. Frequently, it does not and then a new trial member is lected and the analysis repeated. This design cycle continues until a satisfactory solution is obtained. The number of cycles required to find an acceptable design diminishes as the designer gains experience.
正如您从上述提到的各种材料、荷载和形状中看到的，⼯程材料⼒学是各个⼯程领域感兴趣的。⼯程师使⽤材料⼒学的基本原理来确定材料性质和构件的尺⼨在没有过多的失真的情况下是否⾜以确保
安全承担施加在其上的荷载。⼤体上，我们感兴趣的是构件可以承担的安全负荷和相关联的变形。⼯程设计可以是⼀个简单的
过程如果⼯程师将荷载和材料的⼒学性能考虑在内通过列等式计算出合适的尺⼨。设计是很少这么简单。通常，在经验的基础上，设计师选择试验的构件，然后进⾏分析看该成员是否满⾜指定的要求。经常，它不能，然后选择⼀个新的试验构件和重复分析。此设计周期⼀直继续，直到获得令⼈满意的解决⽅案。找到⼀种可接受的设计所需的周期数⽬，随着设计师经验的曾加，将会减少。
Design of Axially Loadde Members
To give you some insight into the design cycle ,an extremely simple member will be dealt with first.That member is a prismatic bar with a force,P,acting along its longitudinal axis in the direction such that it tends to slongate the bar.Such a force is referred to as an axial tensile load,and we can readily imagine it trying to pull the fibers apart and to cau failure on a transver plane .It is safe to assume that all fibers of the bar,in regions from the point of application of the load,are being pulled apart with the same load inensity.With this assumption,the load intensity or stress is uniform on a transver plane and is given by δ
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=P/A When P is Neetons and A is in square metres,stress,,is in Newtons per square
metre(N/m2),which is by definition Pascals(Pa).
Deflection Due to Bengding
这章的主要内容是建⽴弯曲⽅程和求解弯曲⽅程时的经验⽅法。由于这类问题的难度和重要性，我们会遇到超静定结构并深⼊了解。
叠加法时求解静定结构的常⽤的⽅法。然⽽，熟悉叠加法⽐解决这个问题本⾝更重要，因为叠加法可
应⽤在应⼒分析的很多领域，⽽且在我们今后的研究中还会经常应⽤。
欢迎光临的英文
平⾯⼒矩是⼀种简便的求解各种问题的⽅法。但是，当我们遇到⽐较前沿的结构的时候，他就会变
得⽐较⿇烦，我们就会需要更加先进的求解⽅法。就⽬前的阶段来说我们有充⾜的时间了解基础的⽅法。为了阐明在利⽤⼒矩平衡公式计算时内⼒的传递的规律我们学习偏⼼受压柱，这样我们就可以真正了解直线型和曲线型柱的区别。
这章提供了⼀个熟悉未知量的机会，他的应⽤将使静定问题变得⾮常简单。这仅仅是对已给出的主题的介绍，对于有兴趣的同学来说，还有很多东西需要学习。就我们现阶段来说，要阐明⼀个真正的限制条件，我们可以通过表达各种各样的断断续续的均布荷载，但是我们不能写出⼀个集中荷载的荷载函数。如果我们已经进⾏了下⼀步，并且解决了集中荷载的问题，我们会遇到奇怪的函数的由来，但是由于本书应⽤的范围限制了我们进⾏下⼀步的研究。
Failure Theories(参考)
In the design of a member subjected to a uniaxial load,the stress was compared with the stress to cau failure in test specimens that had also been subjected to uniaxial load. This is the simplest of all design problems;the method is quite adequate,since the nature of the loads and the stress in
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the test and in the part being designed are identical. However,we soon encounter cas where the member being designed is not so simple and the stress are not uniaxial;consider,for example,the stress in the web of a beam or in a pressure vesl. In the cas we know that the stress is two-dimensional or biaxial and it may,in other cas,be three-dimensional,or triaxial. For a structure having biaxial or triaxial stress,how should we check the safety of the design? The most obvious way would be to conduct tests in which specimens are stresd to failure in the same multiaxial manner as in the structure;the allowable multiaxial stress can them be determined by the application of an adequate safety factor. However ,this wo uld require a group of tests for every new t of multiaxial stress that occurred in design. Such tests are difficult to perform,and the cost of performing them in the required numbers would be prohibitive .Conquently, we need a theory by which the results of the standard uniaxial test can be ud to predict the failure of a part made of the same material when the stress are multiaxial. In other words,we need a failure theory.
其中⼀个构件在设计中受到的压⼒载荷作⽤下，单⽐较了应⼒导致失败在测试标本，也受到了单轴负载这是最简单的所有设计问题，该⽅法是得相当不错，因为⼤⾃然的负荷及应⼒测试，在部分被设计的都是相同的然⽽，我们很快就遇到案例中，构件被设计的并⾮如此简单和应⼒不是单轴，举个例⼦，考虑⽹络中
的种种压⼒，梁的或压⼒容器在这种情况下我们知道为⼆维和应⼒条件并可在其他情况下，是三维，或三轴它构成⼆轴或三轴应⼒有，我们应该如何检查安全的设计吗?最明显的办法就是在测试失败强调标本是在同⼀多轴⽅式在结构；允许多轴应⼒能够确定⼀个适当的安全系数的应⽤然⽽，这将需要⼀组测试，为每⼀个新的多轴应⼒发⽣在设计这些测试是困难的成本的表现，以及执⾏规定编号就太⾼，我们需要⼀套理论. 因此，我们需要⼀个理论，标准单向的结果测试可以被⽤来预⾔失败的⼀部分做同样材料应⼒是多轴。换句话说，我们需要是失败的理论。
句子翻译
To illustrate the need for a failure theory,let us consider a cylindrical pressure vesl. To aviod unnecessary complications,we will consider in judging the adequate of the design. In this approach we tacitly assumed that the maximum stress could be treated as a uniaxial stress and that it alone determined the safety of the design. The longitudinal stress was
