A Review of the Empirical Evidence on Generational Differences in Work Attitudes
Jean M.Twenge
Published online:18February 2010
ÓSpringer Science+Business Media,LLC 2010
Abstract
Purpo This article reviews the evidence for genera-tional differences in work values from time-lag studies (which can parate generation from age/career stage)and cross-ctional studies (which cannot).Understanding generational shifts is especially important given the coming retirement of Baby Boomer workers and their replacement by tho born after 1982(GenMe/GenY/Millennials).Findings Most studies,including the few time-lag stud-ies,show that GenX and especially GenMe rate work as less central to their lives,value leisure more,and express a weaker work ethic than Boomers and Silents.Extrinsic work values (e.g.,salary)are higher in GenMe and espe-cially GenX.Contrary to popular conceptions,there were no generational differences in altruistic values (e.g.,wanting to help others).Conflicting results appeared in desire for job stability,intrinsic values (e.g.,meaning),and social/
affiliative values (e.g.,making friends).GenX,and especially GenMe are consistently higher in individualistic traits.Overall,generational differences are important where they appear,as even small changes at the average mean that twice or three times as many individuals score at the top of the distribution.
六人行第三季Implications To recruit GenMe,companies should focus on work–life balance issues and flexible schedules.Pro-grams bad on volunteering,altruistic values,social val-ues,or meaning in work will likely be no more successful than they were for previous generations.The lack of gen-erational differences in job hopping suggests that GenMe workers who are satisfied will be retained.
Originality/value No previous review has summarized all of the available studies examining generational differences in work values.
Keywords Work values ÁGenerations ÁWork ethic ÁLeisure ÁExtrinsic values
With the retirement of many Baby Boomers (born 1946–1964),the workplace is Organizations are expe-riencing an influx of younger workers,many born after 1982(and called,variously,GenY,Millennials,nGen,or GenMe;I will u the GenMe label:Twenge 2006).Just as they did when GenX (born 1965–1981)entered the workforce in the 1980s and 1990s,are wondering
if it’s just their perception,or if this young generation of workers really is different.This article will review the empirical evidence on generational differences in work values to give managers and others a clearer picture of how to recruit,retain,and motivate the members of today’s multigenerational workplace.
Generational differences in work values have received extensive media coverage recently in major outlets such as ‘‘60Minutes,’’Business Week ,The Wall Street Journal ,and Fortune (e.g.,Alsop 2008;Chao 2005;Gloeckler 2008;Hira 2007;Needleman 2008).The reports noted the accom-modations and perks many companies have implemented to attract and retain young workers,from employees being paid to volunteer,to more time off,to in-hou gyms.However,many of the reports—and possibly the programs ud by the companies—have not been verified by empirical rearch on generational differences.For example,the vol-unteer programs are bad on the idea that tho born after 1982are more altruistic and have a greater desire than GenX and the Boomers did to help others and do work that is worthwhile to society (perhaps bad on the theories of
J.M.Twenge (&)
Department of Psychology,San Diego State University,5500Campanile Drive,San Diego,CA 92182-4611,USA e-mail:jtwenge@mail.sdsu.edu
上海化妆培训J Bus Psychol (2010)25:201–210DOI 10.1007/s10869-010-9165-6
Howe and Strauss2000).However,the truth of this assumption has not been verified by,for example,examining generational differences in altruistic work values.As another example,many articles and programs emphasize the importance of leisure activities and time off to the young generation,but rarely mention any empirical evidence on leisure values.Books on generations at ,Lancaster and Stillman2003;Tulgan2009)often rely on qualitative interviews done at one time rather than quantitative data to draw conclusions—an improvement over conjecture,but not systematic evidence of generational differences.
One of the biggest challenges in rearch on genera-tional differences is,to put it facetiously,the lack of a workable time machine.Most studies on generational dif-ferences in work values are cross-ctional,with data on workers of different ages collected at one point in time. Thus,any differences could be due to age/career stage or to generation,and it is impossible to parate the two(Schaie 1965).The best design for determining generational dif-ferences is a time-lag study,which examines people of the same age at different points in time.With age held con-stant,any differences are due to either generation(enduring differences bad on birth cohort)or time period(change over time that affects all generations).Time period effects are often the weakest of the three,as attitudes are often f
ormed early and ,Low et al.2005;Schaie 1965),so the time-lag design has distinct advantages for isolating generational differences.However,time-lag studies are rare becau they require similar samples of the same age asked the same questions in different years.To my knowledge,only three academic studies have examined work values using a time-lag design(Kowske et al.2010; Smola and Sutton2002;Twenge et al.in press).A fourth study,published online as an‘‘issues brief’’by the Families and Work Institute(2006),contains time-lag data from surveys of veral thousand U.S.workers in1977,1992, and2002drawn from the National Study of the Changing Workforce and the Quality of Employment Survey.
All the academic time-lag studies have weakness that should be noted.Smola and Sutton(2002)compared the respons of a1999sample of workers in the tho of a1974sample on some of the same questions.Unfortu-nately,the1999sample had only an8%respon rate,which may have biad the results.Only comparisons on individual items were possible,as the scale total means from the1974 data were not available;nor were the standard deviations for individual items.The1999sample did not include GenY/ GenMe,as the oldest in this generation were only about17in 1999;GenX was the youngest generation studied.The c-ond study,Twenge et al.(in press),drew data on work values from the nationally(U.S.)reprentative surve
刘一男y Monitoring the Future(MTF),which has surveyed high school niors every spring since1976.The time-lag design and the nationally reprentative sample with a high participation rate are major strengths.The downside is that this is a sample of young people poid to enter the workforce rather than actual workers.Although work values em to be fairly stable through young adulthood(Low et al.2005),it is still possible that the values could change once the participants enter the working world.Kowske et al.’s(2010)study has data on job satisfaction from workers of many ages across 24years(1985–2009)and thus can parate the effects of age,generation,and time period.However,it can only directly compare young workers(and thus completely con-trol for age)for GenX and GenMe,as Boomers were twentysomething workers in the late1960s through the early 1980s,before data collection for this study began in1985.In addition,respondents in this datat must volunteer by responding to an advertiment;thus their attitudes may not be reprentative of the American workforce as a whole (Malhotra and Krosnick2007).It is also possible that the likelihood of volunteering for a study might interact with generation and confound the results.
Overall,the literature on generational differences in work values is diver;the studies reviewed below ud respondents from Australia,Belgium,Europe as a whole, New Zealand,and the U.S.In addition,no two studies looked at exactly the same work values or variables. However,most of the st
udies examine at least one variable falling into one offive general categories:work ethic,work centrality,and leisure;altruistic values;extrinsic versus intrinsic values;affiliation or social values;and job satis-faction and intention to leave.Below,I review the available evidence—primarily papers published in peer-reviewed journals—on generational differences in work values,and the evidence for personality differences relevant to the workplace.Where possible,I note the effect sizes for the generational differences in terms of d,which captures the difference in standard deviations between two groups.The size of an effect needed to be important is somewhat sub-jective;Cohen(1977)cho somewhat arbitrary cutoffs of d=0.20=small,d=0.50=moderate,and d=0.80 large.(Note,however,that the effect size of the obesity epidemic over30years in the U.S.is‘‘only’’d=0.31; Twenge and Campbell2009).In addition,I address issues such as the age-generation confound,the size of the effects, and whether the effects are linear or categorical.
The Evidence for Generational Differences
in Work Values
Work Ethic,Work Centrality,and Leisure
Three time-lag studiesfind that more recent generations place less value on work for its own sake.S
mola and
must是什么意思Sutton’s(2002)1999respondents were more likely than the 1974respondents to agree that‘‘I would quit my job if I inherited a lot of money’’(d’s=0.13and0.14for27–40-year-old respondents and41–65-year-old respondents, respectively)and disagree that‘‘Rich people should feel an obligation to work even if they do not need to’’(d’s=0.38 and0.61;note that effect sizes were calculated using only the1999SDs as the SDs from1974were not available.In addition,effect sizes cannot be computed for scales in this study as the content means were not available for the1974 data.)Similarly,in the MTF time-lag study,2006partici-pants(GenMe)were more likely than Boomers to agree that ‘‘If I had enough money,I would not want to work’’(d=0.16;GenX was in the middle;Twenge et al.in press).
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Both the studies also found that work centrality has declined.Smola and Sutton(2002)’s1999respondents, compared to tho in1974,were less likely to agree that ‘‘Work should be one of the most important parts of a person’s life’’(d’s=0.50and0.59).Similarly,2006 GenMe respondents,compared to Boomers in1976,were more likely to disagree that‘‘I expect my work to be a very central part of my life’’(d=0.27;2/3of GenMe expected work to be central,compared to3/4of Boomers at the same age)and more likely to agree that‘‘To me,work is nothing more than making a living’’(GenX was again in the mid-dle;d=0.38;1/3of GenMe agreed,compared to1/4of Boomers at th
e same age).
The Families and Work Institute report on veral thousand U.S.workers found that the desire to move into a job with greater responsibility declined over time:In1992, 80%of workers under23eventually wanted a job with more responsibility,but that slid to60%in2002.Tho 23–27years old(69%in1992,54%in2002)and 38–57years old(41%in1992,31%in2002)also showed declines.Many of tho who did not desire advancement named not wanting to work more hours as the reason.
In cross-ctional data,the Families and Work Institute report also found that more Boomers(22%)than GenX (13%)or GenMe(12%)were work-centric,and more of GenMe(50%)and GenX(52%)were family-centric than Boomers(40%);this was true even when only tho with children at home were compared and the age of the youngest child was controlled.Cennamo and Gardner’s (2008)cross-ctional study found that GenMe valued freedom(which they defined as work-life balance)more than GenX or Boomers.
GenMe also scored significantly higher than Boomers (d=0.57)on a reliable and scalar invariant scale of leisure work values such as valuing a job with more vacation time and wanting a job that allo
ws one to work slowly(GenX was in the middle;Twenge et al.,in press).Some con-ceptions of leisure values include freedom from supervi-sion as part of the concept;for example,the item‘‘A job which leaves you mostly free of supervision from others’’loaded on the leisure factor in the MTF data.In that study, GenX was significantly more likely than Boomers to value freedom from supervision;this decread between GenX and GenMe,though GenMe still valued this slightly more than Boomers(Twenge et al.,in press).Jurkiewicz(2000) also found that GenX valued freedom from supervision more than Boomers in her cross-ctional study of public ctor employees.Thus,across three time-lag studies and two cross-ctional studies,fewer respondents recently and in younger generations were focud on work and more were focud on leisure.
However,Davis et al.’s(2006)cross-ctional study of U.S.information technology workers found that GenX scored higher in job involvement and normative commit-ment to the organization than Boomers,though they acknowledged this could be due to career stage rather than generation.Wong et al.’s(2008)cross-ctional study of Australian workers found that GenX,and especially Gen-Me,scored higher than Boomers in achieving traits,which they defined as perceiving onelf as‘‘ambitious and career-oriented and the degree to which they prefer to work to demanding goals and targets,’’and found no differences in Immersion,or being‘‘motivated by work that requires commit
ment beyond‘normal’working hours.’’Wong et al. note that the differences were likely caud by age/career stage rather than generation,as previous rearch has found a strong age effect for achieving traits,with younger people scoring higher(Appelbaum et al.2004).The Families and Work Institute report(2006)found this as well,with younger workers more likely to want to advance(in cross-ctional data),but the desire to advance decreasing between1992and2002(in time-lag data).
There is less data available on work ethic,but it is fairly consistent.Smola and Sutton’s41–65-year-old respondents in1999were less likely than tho in this age group in 1974to agree‘‘A worker should do a decent job whether or not his supervisor is around’’(d=0.37).Participants in 1999were also less likely than tho in1974to agree‘‘A worker should feel a n of pride in his work’’or that working hard made them‘‘feel more worthwhile and[like] a better person’’(d’s=0.22and0.51).In the MTF time-lag data,GenMe(in2006)were less likely than Boomers (in1976)to agree‘‘I want to do my best in my job,even if this sometimes means working overtime’’(d=0.22; Twenge et al.,in press;GenX was in the middle).GenMe was also more likely than Boomers to say that they might not get the job they wanted becau they‘‘don’t want to work hard’’(d=0.33;Twenge and Campbell2010).
A cross-ctional study of Australian workers found that GenX,and especially GenMe,employees were‘‘less interested in unpaid overtime’’than Boomers(Busch et al. 2008).A study of industrial worke
rs found that2006
workers were willing to lift only69%as much as workers tested prior to1991.They were also willing to carry only 70%as much as pre-1991workers(Ciriello et al.2008). Thus most studiesfind a decline in the work ethic,with more recent generations expressing less interest in working hard,putting in overtime,and taking pride in one’s work.
However,the Family and Work Institute(2006)study found that workers23–37years old actually worked more hours in2002than in1977,reflecting the general trend toward longer work hours in the U.S.over time.There are a number of explanations for this eming discrepancy between attitudes and behavior.Perhaps workers may not want to work more hours but may be required to by their employers.Or perhaps younger generations’more negative attitude toward overtime reflects the reality that working overtime means working even more hours on top of already long hours.However,the negative attitude toward overtime appears even among high school students,most of whom have not yet held a full-time job(though it is possible they watched their parents work too many hours).In addition, the work centrality ,‘‘work is just making a living,’’‘‘work should be one of the most important parts of a person’s life’’)do not refer to hours worked yet still show the same decline,suggesting a larger underlying trend toward valuing work less.
Further rearch should explore why younger generations place less value on work,and whether this is caud by(or in spite of)the longer hours worked by many employees.
Summary
Most studies,including the only three using a time-lag method to parate generational from age/career stage differences,consistentlyfind GenX,and especially GenMe,express a weaker work ethic,believe that work is less central to their lives,value leisure,and ek more freedom and work-life balance than their Boomer coun-terparts.there is a fairly consistent generational trend toward leisure values;when studiesfind a greater drive for achievement in GenMe or GenX,they are cross-ctional and thus may be tapping differences bad on age/career stage rather than generation.The best data available show that younger generations are more likely to value time off and less likely to value work for work’s sake.Most of the effects are moderate in size(d’s between0.20and0.60;the scale of leisure values,the only evidence not bad on single-item analys,changed d=0.57).At the same time, American workers are now working longer hours than they did a few decades ago;further rearch should explore the possibly reciprocal,and emingly paradoxical,relation-ship between longer work hours and waning work cen-trality and work ethic expresd in surveys.Altruistic Values(Helping,Volunteering)
The MTF time-lag study found no significant differences among the three generations on a scale of altruistic work values(Twenge et al.,in GenMe was significantly less likely than Boomers to say they wanted‘‘a job that gives you an opportunity to be directly helpful to others’’(d=-0.13;GenX was in the middle)and there were no significant differences among Boomers,GenX,and GenMe in wanting‘‘A job that is worthwhile to society.’’Cennamo and Gardner’s(2008)cross-ctional study also found no generational/age differences in altruistic work values.It appears that this work value is fairly constant across generations.
The apparently mistaken perception that GenMe is more interested in altruistic values than previous generations may have begun with data showing that recent high school niors were more likely to report volunteering their time than their predecessors(Howe and Strauss2000).How-ever,over this same time period,many high schools began requiring volunteer rvice in order to graduate;volunteer rvice also became more important for college applica-tions.Thus,this trend probably does not indicate an internalized shift toward altruistic values.
Summary
GenMe are not higher in altruistic work values than pre-vious generations.Thus,programs offering ti
me off work for volunteering(for a summary,e Needleman2008)or recruiting programs emphasizing helping others while working may be effective for today’s young workers,but no more so than they are or were for workers of other generations.
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Work Values
Intrinsic work values includefinding meaning and interest in work;extrinsic values include status,respect,and a high salary.The MTF time-lag study found no differences in intrinsic values between Boomers and GenX and a small decline in intrinsic values from Boomers to GenMe(d= -0.20;Twenge et al.,in press).This factor included items such as‘‘A job which is interesting to do,’’‘‘A job where you can learn new things,learn new skills,’’‘‘A job where you can e the results of what you do,’’and‘‘A job where you do not have to pretend to be a type of person that you are not.’’Jurkiewicz’s(2000)cross-ctional study of public ctor workers in the U.S.found that Boomers were more likely than X’ers to value the‘‘chance to learn new things’’;there were no significant differences in other intrinsic values such as‘‘chance to u my special abili-ties.’’Cennamo and Gardner’s(2008)cross-ctional study
found no significant generational differences in intrinsic values.
In the MTF time-lag data,extrinsic values showed a curvilinear pattern,with GenX significantly more likely to value money,status,and prestige than Boomers (d=0.39);the values decread between GenX and GenMe(d=-0.13),but were still significantly higher among GenMe than among Boomers(d=0.26;Twenge et al.,in press).Jurkiewicz’s(2000)cross-ctional study found no differences between Boomers and GenX in extrinsic values such as‘‘high prestige and social status’’and‘‘high salary’’;Cennamo and Gardner’s(2008)cross-ctional study no significant generational differ-ences in most extrinsic values,but didfind a significant difference in status-related work values,with a linear increa from Boomers to GenX to GenMe.
Summary
Intrinsic values appear to be relatively consistent across generations,with no differences between Boomers and GenX in time-lag data,a small decline between Boomers and GenMe,and few differences in cross-ctional studies. Thus,theories tho younger generations ek‘‘meaning’’in work,and expect work to be‘‘an expression of their identity’’(e.g.,Arnett,2004,p.143)are not supported—at least not any more for GenX and GenMe than they were for Boomers.In fact,GenMe favors intrinsic values slightly less than Boomers did at the same age.The time-lag data suggests an increa in extrinsic values across the genera-tions,with an especially large increa from Boomers t
o GenX.In addition,a cross-ctional study found that GenX and GenMe valued status more,but most extrinsic values did not vary across age/generation.
Affiliation or Social Values
Some workers are motivated by the social and affiliative aspects of work,such as making friends and having pleasant interactions with others.The MTF time-lag study found a decline in social values at work(d=-0.,‘‘A job that gives you the chance to make friends’’) between Boomers and GenMe(Twenge et al.,in press).In contrast,Wong et al.’s(2008)cross-ctional study found that GenX,and especially GenMe,scored higher in affili-ation values than Boomers on two different scales.
Thus the two studies examining affiliation or social valuesfind conflicting results.It is possible that the dif-ferences found in Wong et al.’s cross-ctional study were caud by age;perhaps,younger people are more interested in affiliating with people at work(a definite possibility,as younger people are more likely to be single and have more of a social life outside of home).It is also possible that the time-lag study found a time period effect;perhaps,all generations declined in social values between the1970s and the2000s.
Summary
The two studies examining affiliation or social values at workfind conflicting results,so it is difficult to draw con-clusions about this value.There may be a time period effect somewhat independent of generation with more recent workers not eking as much social interaction at work.
Job Satisfaction and Intention to Leave
Kowske et al.(2010)prent a comprehensive analysis of job satisfaction items from an over-time survey that pa-rates the effects of generation,age,and time period in data collected between1985and2009.When controlling for age and time period,theyfind that GenMe,compared to GenX,reports higher job satisfaction,more satisfaction with recognition,more satisfaction with career develop-ment,and more confidence in job curity(the effects vary between d=0.24and d=0.28).Other effects were ,d=0.18for turnover intentions).Overall, the results show that GenMe reports higher job satisfaction than GenX,and express less desire to leave their jobs.
Cross-ctional studies show different results,but that may be due to confounding with age.Cennamo and Gardner’s(2008)cross-ctional study found that GenMe was significantly more likely to say they had thoughts of leaving their company than Boomers(d=0.67;GenX was in the midd
le).They found no significant differences in job satisfaction and affective organizational commitment. D’Amato and Herzfeld’s(2008)cross-ctional study of European managers found that GenX was less willing to remain with their current employer than Boomers,and scored lower in organizational commitment.Davis et al.’s (2006)cross-ctional study found that Boomers scored higher than GenX in continuance commitment to the pro-fession,but there were no differences between Boomers and GenX in work involvement,affective commitment to the organization,or continuance,affective,or normative commitment to the profession.
However,Dries et al.’s(2008)cross-ctional study of European workers found that GenMe actually reported a higher need for curity in their jobs than Boomers,or especially GenX,agreeing with items such as‘‘I am most fulfilled in my work when I feel that I have complete financial and employment curity’’and‘‘I ek jobs in organizations that will give me a n of curity and stability.’’
notyetThe MTF time-lag study had only one question relevant to job-hopping:‘‘I would like to stay in the same job for
查尔斯 狄更斯most of my adult life.’’Contrary to most of the cross-ctionalfindings,GenX and GenMe,compared to
Boomers,were actually slightly more likely to agree with this item(d=0.13,Twenge et al.,in press).Similarly,the Families and Work Institute study found that workers age 24–37were no more likely to say that they planned to leave their current employers in2002than they were in1977. However,tho under age23were more likely to say they would leave their jobs in2002(70%)when compared to tho of the same age in1977(52%).
Summary
The best data on job satisfaction,job-hopping,and com-mitment to the organization—that which controls for age—shows that GenMe is actually more satisfied with their jobs and want more job curity than older generations.The generations are fairly similar in their attitudes toward leaving their current company.There may be a discrepancy between initial intentions and behaviors;when prented with other opportunities,GenX and GenMe em to be eager to embrace them.As Dries et al.(2008)put it,‘‘Although certain career aspirations(such as achieving organizational curity)may not have changed much, career reality has—causing a shift from traditional,boun-ded career types to staying and homeless career types (where there is a multiple-employer career,but still a longing for stability and curity)’’(p.920).GenMe ems to be saying that they like their jobs and would like to stay in them,but this attitude may break down when better opportunities ari.
Generational Differences in Personality Traits Relevant
to the Workplace
孙权劝学翻译>汽车零件英语Several studies have examined generational differences in personality traits using a time-lag design,primarily in child and college student samples.The studies consistently show increas in individualistic traits over the generations, with younger generations scoring higher on both positive individualistic traits such as lf-esteem and asrtiveness (Gentile,Twenge and Campbell2001,2009;Twenge2001) and more negative individualistic traits such as narcissism (Twenge et al.2008;Twenge and Foster2010;for a review of the cultural-level changes toward narcissism,e Twenge and Campbell2009;for a more extensive review of how the generational changes in personality traits may affect the workplace,e Twenge and Campbell2008). Effect sizes are between d=0.33and d=1.08.The results are consistent with a cross-ctional study showing that GenX(vs.Boomer)employees scored higher in traits such as lf-reliance,competitiveness,and preferring to work alone(Sirias et al.2007),including statements such as‘‘Winning is everything,’’‘‘In the long run,the only person you can count on is yourlf,’’and‘‘If you want something done right,you have got to do it yourlf.’’However,there were no differences in making sacrifices for the group.A very large cross-ctional study of U.S. and Canadian workers(n=20,640)found that younger leaders
were more likely to u a more individual leader-ship style(vs.the more connsual leadership style favored by older leaders:Sessa et al.2007).Sirias et al.suggest that a new model for teamwork might be necessary,given GenXers’more individualistic attitudes.GenMe has con-tinued the trends.
Individualism has both upsides and downsides.The upside is that GenX,and especially GenMe,are more likely to recognize the right and ability of individuals to succeed and contribute regardless of their background—in other words,to treat people as individuals rather than members of racial or gender groups.The downside,especially when individualism reaches the level of narcissism(defined as an inflated n of lf),is the possibility of entitlement,or expecting something for nothing.The ri in narcissistic and entitled attitudes may be one of the reasons why work ethic has declined even as materialistic values have incread,a emingly contradictory combination(Twenge and Campbell2009).This disconnect may be why some have labeled tho born since1982‘‘The Entitlement Generation’’(Alsop2008).Of cour,not every—or even most—members of this generation willfit this description, but there are more than in previous generations.For a summary of the generational differences,e Table1. Issues in Rearch on Generational Differences
in Work Values
The Age–Generation Confound
Although in some ,work centrality)time-lag and cross-ctional studies are fairly congruent,in other cas they disagree.Where they are discrepant,the most logical explanation is that the cross-ctional study is also tapping differences due to age or career stage.For example,Wong et al.(2008)found that GenMe was higher in affiliation values,whereas a time-lag study found that social values have declined.Thus,it is fairly likely that the difference found by Wong et al.(2008)was caud by younger workers eking out more of a social life than older(and probably married)workers,and not by a generational effect.The other possibility is that the time-lag studies are finding a time period ,all generations have changed over time in the same way.This is less likely,as work values remain fairly stable(Low et al.2005).Nev-ertheless,both possibilities should be considered.惊喜英语怎么写
