句子语义学
词和词之间有各种各样的意义关系，我们称之为n relation。句子也一样，可以有各种意义关系。句子语义学是在句子层面对意义进行研究，并把句子当成一个整体来看待。
syria◆ Presupposition前提/预设，这一概念是由哲学家弗雷格（G.Frege）首先提出来的。在言语交际中，我们所说的一句句话并不是孤立的，相互之间毫无联系的。相反前一句话和后一句话往往有密切的联系。
Plea open the door.
eighth的音标 这句话的意思很清楚，就是“请把们打开”，但是说这句话必须有一个前提，那就是“现在要开的门再说话时是关着的”。
所以从语义的角度来看，句子所包含的“前提”和这个句子本身的意义有十份密切的关系
句子的前提有这样的特点：否定了句子本身，句子的前提保留不变。
John is married.
John exists.
John is not married.
◆ Semantic presupposition and pragmatic presupposition
语义预设是对语句之间关系所做的逻辑分析，他面对的是一种不变的关系：即如果P在语义上预设Q, 则P总是在语义上预设Q。
但在实际的语言活动中（语用预设），预设通常不是语义中稳定的不受约束的部分。这也正是有些语言学家认为预设属于语用学而不属于语义学的主要原因。一个重要的事实是，在一定的语境里，预设会消失，也就是说预设具有可消失性(defeasibility)。例如：
Sue cried before she finished her thesis.
Sue died before she finished her thesis.
◆ What is Semantic Presupposition?
In many discussions of the concept, presupposition is treated as a relationship between two propositions by the linguists. If we say the ntence in (1a.) contains the proposition p and the ntence in (1b.) contains the proposition q, then, using思源＞＞谓语从句to mean ‘presuppos’, we can reprent the relationship as in (1c.).
瘾科技(1) a. Mary’s dog is cute. (nd nudes＝p)
b. Mary has a dog. (= q)
c. p ＞＞ q联系方式翻译
英汉翻译器下载Interestingly, when we produce the opposite of the ntence in (1a.) by negating it (= NOT p), as in (2a.), we find that the relationship of presupposition does not change. That is, the same proposition q, repeated as (2b.), continues to be presuppod by NOT p, as shown in (2c.).
(2) a. Mary’s dog isn’t cute. (＝ NOT p)
b. Mary has a dog. (= q)
c. NOT p ＞＞ q
Presupposition is an inference（推论）to the proposition of the ntence. Take the following ntences for example again:
e.g. (3) John is married.
(4) John exists.
(5) John is not married.
Comment: if (3) is true, (4) is true; if (3) is not true, (4) is still true. In this ca, we can say both (3) and (5) presuppo (4). A presupposition is something the speaker assumes to be the ca prior to making an utterance. Speakers, not ntences, have presuppositions. An entailment is something that logically follows from what is asrted in the utterance. Sentences, not speakers, have entailments.
◆ Semantic presupposition would be bad on the following definition:
Sentence A mantically presuppos another ntence B iff:
if and only if, iff是充分必要条件
(a) in all situations where A is true, B is true
(b) in all situations where A is fal, B is true
◆ Types of presupposition
Potential presupposition: in the analysis of how speakers’ assumptions are typically expresd, presupposition has been associated with the u of a large number of words, phras, and structures. The linguistic forms shall be considered as indicators of potential presuppositions, which can only become actual presuppositions in contexts with speakers. The following kinds of presuppositions are all potential presuppositions. Now we’ll look at the major presupposition types marked by different linguistic features.
◆Existential presupposition: presuppo the existence of something.(my). It is not only a
ssumed to be prent in posssive constructions, but more generally in any definite descriptions such as definite noun phra with determines ‘the’, ‘this’, ‘that’, ‘the’, ‘tho’, etc. By using any of the expressions in (16), the speaker is assumed to be committed to the existence of the entities named.
(16) e.g. The king of Sweden, the cat, the girl next door (Yule, 2004: 27)
◆Factive presupposition: presuppo something as a fact.(know). A number of factive verbs, such as ‘realize’ in (17a) and ‘regret’ in (17b), as well as phras involving ‘be’ with ‘aware’ in (17c), ‘odd’ in (17d), and ‘glad’ in (17e) have factive presuppositions.
(17) a. She didn’t realize he was ill.
(＞＞He was ill)
b. We regret telling him.
imi
(＞＞javadWe told him)
c. I wasn’t aware that she was married.
(＞＞She was married)
d. It isn’t odd that he left early.
(＞＞He left early)
e. I’m glad that it’s over.
(＞＞It’s over)
The presuppod information following the verb ‘know’ can be treated as a fact, and is described as a factive presupposition. Words like know, realize, regret as well as phras involving ‘be’ with ‘aware’, ‘odd’, and ‘glad’ have factive presuppositions. (Yule, 2004: 27-28)
◆ Lexical presupposition: when a specific word triggers a presupposition. It is featured by implicative verbs like ‘manage’, ‘start’, ‘stop’, ‘forget’, etc. Generally speaking, in lexical pr
esupposition, the u of one form with its asrted meaning is conventionally interpreted with the presupposition that another (non-asrted) meaning is understood.
Each time you say that someone ‘managed’ to do something, the asrted meaning is that the person succeeded in some way. When you say that someone ‘didn’t manage’, the asrted meaning is that the person did not succeed. In both cas, however, there is a presupposition (non-asrted) that the person ‘tried’ to do that something. So, ‘managed’ is conventionally interpreted as asrting ‘succeeded’ and presupposing ‘tried’.
(18) a. He stopped smoking.
