Land and People 英国的国土与人民
I. Different Names for Britain and its Parts 英国的不同名称及其各组成部分
1.Geographical names: the British Isles, Great Britain and England. 地理名称：不列颠群岛，大不列颠和英格兰。
2. Official name: the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. 官方正式名称：大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国。
3. The British Isles are made up of two large islands-Great Britain (the larger one) and Ireland, and hundreds of small ones.不列颠群岛由两个大岛—大不列颠岛（较大的一个）和爱尔兰岛，及成千上万个小岛组成。
4. Three political divisions on the island of Great Britain: England, Scotland and Wale大不列颠岛上有三个政治区：英格兰、苏格兰和威尔士。
(1) England is in the southern part of Great Britain. It is the largest, most populous ction.英格兰位于大不列颠岛南部，是最大，人口最稠密的地区。
(2) Scotland is in the north of Great Britain. It has three natural zones (the Highlands in the north; the Central lowlands; the south Uplands) Capital: Edinburgh 苏格兰位于大不列颠的
北部。它有三大自然区：北部高地，中部低地及南部山陵。首府：爱丁堡。
(3) Wales is in the west of Great Britain. Capital: Cardiff 威尔士位于大不列颠的西部。首府：加的夫
(4) Northern Ireland is the fourth region of the UK. Capital: Belfast.北爱尔兰是英国第四个区域。首府：贝尔法斯特。
5. The Commonwealth (of nations) is a free association of independent countries that were once colonies of Britain. It was founded in 1931, and has 50 member countries until 1991. 英联邦是独立的前英国殖民地组成的自由联合体。它成立于1931年，至1990年止已有50个成员国。
Chapter 2 第二章
The Origins of a Nation (5000BC-1066)英国的起源（公元前5000年—1066年）
I. Arrival and ttlement of the Celts 克尔特人的到来和定居
Celts were practiced famers. The drained much of marshlands and built hous of wood.They wre ironworkers, too. Their languages, the Celts languages, are the basis of the language which is still ud by some people in Scotland and Wales. Their religion wa
s Druidism (n.德鲁伊教). 克尔特人是有经验的农民，他们排干沼泽地，用木材建造房屋。他们还打造铁器。苏格兰和威尔士语就是以他们的语言为基础发展而来的。
1、 The Celts began to arrive Britain about 700 BC. 约公元前700年，克尔特人来到不列颠岛。
2、The Celts came to Britain in three main waves. 克尔特人来到不列颠有三次高潮。
The first wave were the Gaels-came about 600 BC. 第一次高潮是约公元前600年盖尔人的来临。
The cond wave were the Brythons-came about 400 BC. 第二次高潮是约公元前400年布列吞人的抵达。
The third wave were the Belgae-came about 150 BC.第三次是约公元前150年比利其人的到达。
II. The Anglo-Saxons (446-871) 盎格鲁—撒克逊人（公元446—871年）
1． Basis of Modern English race: the Anglo-Saxons.盎格鲁—萨克逊时代（奠定了英国的基础）
In the mid-5th century a new wave of invaders, Jutes, Saxons, and Angles came to Britai
n. They were three Teutonic tribes. 五世纪中叶，朱特人、撒克逊人和盎格鲁人不断入侵不列颠。这是三支日耳曼（条顿）部落。
①The Jutes, who fished and farmed in Jutland, came to Britain first. A Jutish chief became the King of Kent in 449.②Then the Saxons, urs of the short-sword from northern Germany, established their kingdom in Esx, Susx and Wesx from the end of the 5th century to the beginning of the 6th century. ③In the cond half of the 6th century, the Angles, who also came from northern Germany and were to give their name to the English people, ttled in East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria. The ven principal kingdoms of Kent, Esx, Susx, Wesx, East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria have been given the name of Heptarchy. notice的用法居住在日德兰半岛（现丹麦南部）上从事打渔农耕的朱特人先抵不列颠。一个朱特人首领于449年当上了国王。后来从德国北部来的使用短剑的撒克逊人在埃撒克斯、苏塞克斯和威塞克斯建立了王国，统治期从五世纪末至六世纪初。六世纪后半叶，同样来自德国北部的盎格鲁人，在东盎格利亚、麦西亚以及诺森伯利来定居，同时把他们的族名加诸在英国人够上。这七个主要王国（肯特、埃塞克斯、苏塞克斯、威塞克斯、东英吉利亚、麦西亚和诺森伯利亚），合称为七王国。
2．The early Anglo-Saxons converted to Christianity. 最早的盎格鲁—撒克逊人改信基督教。
The Anglo-Saxons brought their own Teutonic religion to Britain. Christianity soon disappeared, except among the Celts of Cornwall, Wales, Scotland and Ireland. In 597, Pope Gregory I nt St. Augustine, the Prior of St. Andrew’s Monastery in Rome, to England to convert the heathen (异教的) English to Christianity. In 597 St. Augustine became the first Archbishop of Canterbury. He was remarkably successful in converting the king and the nobility, but the conversion of the common people was largely due to the missionary activities of the monks in the north. 盎格鲁—撒克逊人把日耳曼宗教带到了英国。除了康瓦尔、威尔士、苏格兰和爱尔兰中的克尔特人还信奉基督教外，基督教很快就消失了。公元597，教皇格里高一世把罗马圣安德鲁修道院的院长圣奥古斯丁派遣到英格兰，其使命是使异教徒的英国人皈依基督教。公元579年圣奥古丁成为坎特伯雷大主教。在使国王和贵族皈依基督教方面，奥古斯丁特别成功。但是普通人的皈依很大程度上归功于北方修道们的传教活动。
3．The Early Anglo-Saxons make the contributions to the English state.(formation of the
English nation) 早期盎格鲁—撒克逊人为英国做出的贡献。
The Anglo-Saxons laid the foundations of the English state. Firstly, they ①divided the country into shires (which the Normans later called counties), with shire courts and shire reeves, or sheriffs, responsible for administering law. Secondly, they devid the narrow-strip, three-field ②farming system which continued to the 18th century. Thirdly, they also ③established the manorial system(庄园制). Finally, they ④留学英国留学somethingfornothingcreated the Witan（council or meeting of the wimen） to advi the king, the basis of the Privy Council which still exists today.
盎格鲁—撒克逊人构筑了英国的国家基础。首先，他们把国家划分为郡，郡法庭和郡法官、或行政司法长官负责执法。其次，他们设计的窄条三区轮作制延用至18世纪。此外，他们还建立了领地制。最后，他们还创立了咨议会(贤人会议)，向国王提供建议，这就成为了今天尚存的枢密院的前身。
IV．Viking and Danish invasions 北欧海盗和丹麦人的入侵
1．The invaders were the Norwegians and the Danes. They attacked various parts of England from the end of the 8th century. They became a rious problem in the 9th centu
ry, especially between 835 and 878. They even managed to capture York, an important center of Christianity in 867. By the middle of 9th century, the Viking and the Danes were posing a threat to the Saxon kingdom of Wesx. 入侵者是挪威人和丹麦人，从8世纪末开始，他们不断袭击英格兰的各个地方。9世纪，尤其是公元835-878年间已成为严重问题。他们甚至占领了约克郡，公元867年时的基督教中心。到9世纪中叶，北欧海盗和丹麦人威胁到撒克逊人的威撒克斯王国的安全。
2．King Alfred (849-899) and his contributions 艾尔弗雷德国王（849-899）和他所做出的贡献
Alfred was a king of Wesx. He defeated the Danes and reached a friendly agreement with them in 879. The Danes gained control of the north and east, while he ruled the rest. He also converted some leading Danes into Christians.
He ①founded a strong fleet and is known as “ the father of the British navy”. He ②reorganized the Saxon army, making it more efficient. He ③translated a Latin book into English. He also ④established schools and ⑤formulated a legal system. All this earns him the title “Alfred the Great.” 阿尔弗雷德是威塞克斯的国王。他打败了丹麦人，并于公
元879年与他们达成了友好协议。协议规定丹麦人控制英格兰北部和西部（丹麦法区），而他统治其他地区。他还劝服一些丹麦首领成为基督教徒。
他因为建立了强大舰队，而以“英国海军之父”闻名于世。他改组了“弗立德”（撒克逊军队），使之更为高效。他将一本拉丁语的书翻译成英语。同时他还建立了学校，并且阐明了法律制度。所有这一切使他当之无愧于“阿尔弗雷德大王。”的称号。
V．The Norman Conquest (1066) 诺曼征服（公元1066年）
1．Reasons for William’s invasion of England after Edward’s death. 威廉在爱德华死后入侵英国的原因。
It was said that king Edward had promid the English throne to William, but the Witan cho Harold as king. So William led his army to invade England. In October 1066, during the important battle of Hastings, William defeated Harold and killed him. One Christmas Day, William was crowned king of England, thus beginning the Norman Conquest of England. 据说，爱德华国王曾答应把英格兰王位传给诺曼底公爵威廉，但是贤人会议挑选了哈罗德为国王。公元1066年10月，在哈斯丁斯附近的激烈交锋中，威廉打败了哈罗德军队，同时哈罗德也在此战争中战死。在圣诞节加冕，成为英国国王，从此开
始了诺曼征服。
2．The Norman Conquest and its conquences 诺曼征服及其产生的影响。
The Norman Conquest of 1066 is perhaps ①the best-known event in English history. William the Conqueror ② confiscated almost all the land and gave it to his Norman followers. He replaced the weak Saxon rule with ③a strong Norman government. So the feudal system was completely established in England.
④Relations with the Continent were opened, and the civilization and commerce were extended. ⑤Norman-French culture, language, manners and architecture were introduced. ⑥The Church was brought into clor connection with Rome, and the church courts were parated from the civil courts. 1066年的诺曼征服也许是英国历史上的最著名事件。征服者威廉几乎没收了所有土地，将其分发给他的诺曼追随者。他用强有力的诺曼政府代替了软弱的萨克逊政府。于是，封建制度在英国完全建立。开放了与欧洲大陆的关系，文明和商业得到发展，引进了诺曼—法兰西文化、语言、行为规范和建筑艺术。教会与罗马的联系更为密切，教会法庭与民事法庭分离。
3．The English is a mixture of nationalities of different origins. The ancestors of many En
glish people were the ancient Angles and Saxons. Some English people are of the Norman-French origin. 英国是一个集不同民族于一体的国家。许多英国人的祖先是古盎格鲁和撒克逊人。而还有一些英国人的是诺曼血统。
Chapter 3 第三章
The Shaping of the Nation (1066-1381) 英国的形成（公元1066-1381）
I. Norman Rule (1066-1381) 诺曼统治（公元1066-1381）
1. William's Rule （1066-1087） 威廉一世的统治（公元1066-1087）kef
England's feudalism under the rule of William the Conqueror 在威廉统治下的英国封建制度
①Under William, the feudal system in England was completely established. ②According to this system, the King owned all the land personally. ③William gave his barons large estates in England in return for a promi of military rvice and a proportion of the land's produce. ④The estates were scattered far and wide over the country, so that tho who held them could not easily combine to rebel the king. ⑤The barons, who had become William's tenants-in-chief, parceled out land to the lesr nobles, knights and fre
emen, also in return for goods and rvices. ⑥At the bottom of the feudal scale were the villeins or rfs. ⑦One peculiar feature of the feudal system of England was that all landowners must take the oath of allegiance，not only to their immediate lord, but also to the king. ①在威廉统治下，英国的封建制度得到完全确立。②根据此制度，国王拥有全国所有土地。owning③威廉把英国的大片土地分给贵族，条件是换取对方服役和物品。④这些地产分散于各处，相距遥远，这样土地拥有者就不易联合起来反叛国王。⑤已成为国王总佃户的贵族又把土地分配给小贵族、骑士和自由民，同样换取货物和服役。⑥处于封建等级最底层的是农奴。⑦英国封建制独有的特色就是，无论是土地承租人还是二佃户，都必须要宣誓效忠于直接地主，而且要效忠于国王。
II．Contents and the significance of the Great Charter 《大宪章》的内容及意义
Great Charter was signed by King John in 1215 under the press of the barons. It consists of sixty-three claus. Its important provisions are as follows: (1) no tax should be made without the approval of the Grand Council; (2) no freemen should be arrested, imprisoned or deprived of their property; (3) the Church should posss all its rights, together with freedom of elections; (4) London and other towns should retain their traditional rights and
privileges, and (5) there should be the same weights and measures throughout the country. (significance) Although The Great Charter has long been popularly regarded as the ① foundation of English liberties, it was a ②小学生课堂游戏statement of the feudal and legal relationships between the Crown and the barons, ③a guarantee of the freedom of the Church and a ④ limitation of the powers of the king. The spirit of the Great Charter was the limitation of the powers of the king, keeping them within the bounds of the feudal law of the land.
《大宪章》是约翰国王1215年在封建贵族压力下签定的。《大宪章》总共63条，其中最重要的内容是：(1) 未经大议会同意，不得征税；(2) 只有根据国家有关法律才能逮捕、监禁自由人以及剥夺他们的财产；(3)教会应享受其所有权利且有选举自由；（4） 伦敦和其它城镇应保留其贵族的传统权力和特权；(5) 全国要统一度量衡。尽管人们普遍认为《大宪章》为英国的自由奠定了基础，但该宪章只是规定国王和贵族之间封建关系和法律关系的声明书，保证了教会的自由，限制了国王权利。《大宪章》的精神实质就是把国王的权利限制在英国封建法律允许的范围之内。
III. The origins of the English Parliament 英国议会的起源
The Great Council is known to be the prototype (原型) of the current British Parliament. In 1265, Simon de Montfort summoned （召集） the Great Council, together with two knights from each county and two citizens from each town. It later developed into the Hou of Lords and the Hou of Commons. Its main role was to offer advice，not to make decisions. There were no elections or parties. And the most important part of Parliament was the Hou of Lords. 大议会是当今英国议会的原型。1265年，西门德孟福尔召开大议会，各县有两名骑士，各镇有两名市民参加。大议会发展到后来演变成议会，分为上议院和下议院。其作用是咨询而非决定；也没有选举和政党。议会的最重要的部分是上议院。
IV．The Hundred Years' War and its conquences. 百年战争及其结果
The Hundred Years’ War refers to the war between England and France that lasted intermittently from 1337 to 1453. The caus of the war were partly territorial and partly economic. ①The territorial caus were related with the posssion by the English kings of the large duchy of Aquitaine in France, as the French kings grew stronger,they increasingly coveted this large slice. ②The economic caus were connected with cloth
manufacturing towns in Flanders, which were the importer of English wool, but they were loyal to the French king politically. Besides, England's desire to ③stop France from giving aid to Scots and ④ a growing n of nationalism were the other caus.
The English's being driven out of France is ① regarded as a blessing for both countries. If the English had remained in France, the superior size and wealth of France would have ②hindered the development of a parate English national identity, ③ while France was hindered so long as a foreign power occupied so much French territory.
百年战争指1337四级考试多少分算过年到1453年英法之间一场断断续续的战争，战争的起因既有领土因素又有经济因素。领土起因尤其是英国国王占领了法国的阿基坦大片公爵领地，这是战争的根源，随着法国国王势力日增，他们渴望占领这片土地。经济原因则与弗兰德斯城有关。弗兰德斯地区生产棉布的城镇是英国羊毛的主要进口商，但这些城镇在政治上却效忠法国国王。其他原因还有英国试图阻止法国对苏格兰人的援助，并且压制不断增强的民族意识。
战争的结果：
把英国人赶出法国对两个国家都是幸事：若英国人继续留在法国，那么法国人在领土和财富上所占的优势必然会阻碍独立的英国的发展；而在英国占领大量法国领土的情况下，法
国也很难统一。
Three stages of the war 战争的三个阶段
In the first two stages, the English won some big victories. But in the third stage, they were driven out of Fance.战争初期，英国取得辉煌胜利。但是最终被逐出法国
The battle of Argencourt 阿壤科之战
It took place in 1415 and the English won a crushing victory. After the victory, the English king Henry Ⅴ was recognized as the French King.1415年英国大获全胜，亨利5世登上法国王位。
Joan of Arc (1412-1431)贞德女士
Joan of Arc was a nation heroine in French history. She led and encourages the French in driving the English out of French in the Hundred Years’ War. 贞德是法国历史上的女英雄，她领导和鼓舞法国人民将英国军队驱逐处境。
Conquences of the war 战争的后果影响
①The English lost the war. The expulsion of the English from French is regarded as a blessing for both countries.② It helped English national identity as well as French national identity. ③Two parate nation were born after the war.
V. The Black Death 黑死病
The Black Death is the modern name given to the deadly bubonic plague,an epidemic dia spread by rat fleas across Europe in the 14th century. It swept through England in the summer of 1348. It reduced England's population from four million to two million by the end of the 14th century.
The economic conquences of the Black Death were far-reaching. As a result of the plague, much land was left untended and there was a terrible shortage of labour. The surviving peasants had better bargaining power and were in a position to change their rfdom into paid labour. Some landlords, unable or unwilling to pay higher wages, tried to force peasants back into rfdom. In 1351 the government issued a Statute of Labourers which made it a crime for peasants to ask for more wages or for their employers to pay more than the rates laid down by the Justices of the Peace.
黑死病是指由鼠疫蚤传播的致命的淋巴腺鼠疫，是一种流行疾病，在14世纪传播了到欧洲。1348年夏天横扫全英国。英国的人口在14世纪末从400万锐减至200万。
黑死病对经济造成的后果更为深远。鼠疫导致了大片土地无人照管和劳动力极度匮乏。地
主想把耕地变为人力需求较少的牧场。存活的农民处于有利的讨价还价地位，从农奴变为雇佣劳动力。于是一些支付不起或不愿意支付较高工资的地主想方设法迫使农民重返农奴地位。1351年政府颁布“劳工法令”，规定农民们涨工资的要求，或者是雇主支付比地方官制订的工资水平要高的工资都是犯罪。
Chapter 4 第四章
Transition to the Modern Age (1455-1688)向现代英国的过渡
I. Transition to the Modern Age (1455-1485) 向近代英国的过渡(1455年-1485年)
The Wars of Ro 玫瑰战争
The nature and conquences of the Wars of the Ros.
The name Wars of the Ros was refer to the battles between the Hou of Lancaster, symbolized by the read ro, and that of York, symbolized by the white, from 1455 to 1485. Henry Tudor, descendant of Duke of Lancaster won victory at Bosworth Fireld in 1485 and put the country under the rule of the Tudors. From the Wars, English feudalism received its death blow. The great medieval nobility was much weakened.
玫瑰战争是指，从1455年到1485年，以红玫瑰为象征的兰开斯特大家族和以白玫瑰为象征
的约克家族之间战争的普遍接受的名称。1485年，兰开斯特家族的后代亨利都铎取得了博斯沃恩战役的胜利，建立了都铎王朝。这些战争使英国的封建主义受到致命打击，贵族阶层受到了削弱。
II. Henry VIII and The English Reformation
亨利八世和英国的宗教改革
Henry VIII was above all responsible for the religious reform of the church. There were three main caus: a desire for change and reform in the church had been growing for many years and now, encouraged by the success of Martin Luther, many people believed its time had come; the privilege and wealth of the clergy were rented; and Henry needed money.亨利八世最重要的改革是负责进行教会的宗教改革。改革原因有三个主要方面：多年来，人们改革教会的意愿不断增长，现在又受马丁路德成功的鼓舞，许多人认为时机已到；教职人员的特权和财富已引起民愤；亨利需要钱。
The reform began as a struggle for a divorce and ended in freedom from the Papacy. Henry VIII wanted to divorce Catherine of Aragon but the Pope refud. Henry’s reforms was to get rid of the English Church’s connection with the Pope, and to make an indepentimemagazine
dent Church of England. He made this break with Rome gradually between 1529 and 1534. He dissolved all of England’s monasteries and nunneries becau they were more loyal to the Pope than to their English kings. The laws such as the Act of succession of 1534 and the Act of Supremacy of 1535 made his reform possible. He established the church of England as the national church of the country, and he made himlf the supreme head of the church of England.
改革以争取离婚而开始，以脱离教皇而告终。亨利八世欲与阿拉贡的凯瑟琳离婚，但是教皇拒绝了。亨利改革的目的是摆脱英国教会与教皇的联系，成立独立的英格兰教会。1529年至1534年间逐渐地与罗马脱离了关系。他解散了所有英国的修道院和修女院，因为后者对教皇比对英国国王更忠诚。1534年的《继位法》和1535年的《王权法案》使改革具有了可行性。1535年他获“英格兰教会最高首脑”之称号。
Henry VIII’s reform stresd the power of the monarch and certainly strengthened Henry’s position; Parliament had never done such a long and important piece of work before, its importance grew as a result. His attack on the Pope’s power encouraged many critics of abus of the Catholic Church. England was moving away from Catholicism tow
ards protestant ideology.
改革的三大影响：亨利的改革强调了君主权力，自然巩固了亨利的地位；议会以往从未做过如此漫长而重要的工作，自然其重要性也有所加强；他对教皇权力的打击鼓舞许多人批评指责天主教会，并希望从天主教转向新教。
III. Elizabeth I (1558-1603) 伊莉莎白一世（1558年-1603年）
Elizabeth I and parliament
(1)Elizabeth I was the last monarch of the Tudor Dynasty. She was able to work with Paliament.She avoided troubling Parliament too often for pounds by making strict economies at Court.But the relationship was often turbulent. Becau Parliament demanded that its right of free speech be confirmed in writing and it be allowed to discuss all important questions at will. Elizabeth I did not agree to their demands.为怎么报名什么时候报名 了避免经常向议会索要资金，伊莉莎白在王室内部制定了严格的节约制度。但是，她与议会的关系也经常不稳定。因为议会需要用文字形式对言论自由的一般权力加以确定，同时希望可以随时对重要问题进行讨论。伊不同意他们的要求。
Elizabeth's religious reform and her foreign policy
伊莉莎白的宗教改革和外交政策
Elizabeth's religious reform was a compromi of views. She broke Mary's ties with Rome and restored her father's independent Church of keeping to Catholic doctrines and practices but to be free of the Papal control. His religious ttlement was unacceptable to both the extreme Protestants known as Puritans and to ardent Catholics.
For nearly 30 years Elizabeth successfully played off against each other the two great Catholic powers, France and Spain, and prevented England from getting involved in any major European conflict. Through her marriage alliances which were never materialized, Elizabeth managed to maintain a friendly relationship with France. So England was able to face the danger from Spain.
伊莉莎白的宗教改革是对不同观点的妥协。她中断玛丽与罗马的关系，恢复她父亲在位时独立的英格兰教会，也就是说保持天主教教条及习俗，但不受教皇控制。她的宗教定论既不被以清教徒知名的新教极端分子所接受，也不为虔诚的天主教徒所接受。
近30年的时间，伊莉莎白成功挑起了两大天主教强国法国和西班牙互相斗杀，从而免于英国卷入任何主要的欧洲国的冲突。通过她从未具体化的联姻，伊莉莎白设法与法国维持友好关系，因此英国能面对来自西班牙的危险。
