Developmental Psychology | From birth to death. It is an applied topic rather than pure rearch topic: apply from other areas of psychology. 2 basic controversies: 1)nature (genetic factors) VS nurture (environmental factors) 2)continuity VS discontinuity |
Rearch methods | 1、Cross-ctional rearch: us participants of different ages to compare how certain variables may change over the life span. 2、Longitudinal rearch: examines one group of participants over time. More preci but time-consuming. |
Prenatal influences 产前影响 | crew是什么意思 1、Genesgoth 2、Teratogens（environmental） 1)Teratogens畸胎原: certain chemicals or agents can cau harm if ingested or contracted by the mother. 2)The placenta胎盘 can filter out many potentially harmful substances, but teratogens pass through this barrier and can affect the fetus in profound ways. Eg. Alcohol, psychoactive drugs, polluting chemicals, certain bacteria and virus. rootkit3)Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS): children born with FAS have small, malformed skull and mental retardation. 4)Fetal alcohol effect: a less vere effect of moderate drinking during pregnancy. It may have specific developmental problems later in life, such as learning disabilities or behavioral problems. |
Motor/nsory development | 1、Reflexes: 1)In the past, it is believed that humans are born as Blank slates: helpless and without any skills or reflexes. 2)In fact, there are newborn reflexes: we are born with and lo later in life (some other reflexes (eg: eye blinking) remain with us throughout our life): a)Rooting reflex觅食: When touched on the cheek, a baby will turn his or her head to the side where he or she felt the touch and ek to put the object into his or her mouth. b)Sucking reflex吮吸: When an object is placed into the baby’s mouth, the infant will suck on it. c)Grasping reflex抓: If an object is placed into a baby’s palm or foot pad, the baby will try to grasp the object with his or her fingers or toes. d)Moro reflex缩: When startled, a baby will fling his or her limbs our and then quickly retract them, making himlf or herlf as small as possible. e)Babinski reflex脚趾张开: When a baby’s foot is stroked, he or she will spread the toes. 2、The Newborn’s Sens除了视觉，其他都已发展良好 1)Hearing: dominant n 2)Taste & smell：like the way we are, and prefer sugar concentrated food 3)Vision：very poor 4)Face-like：help them e their mother 3、Motor development 1)Develop in the same quence but different timing 2)Environmental effect is slight |
Parenting： Attachment theory | 1、Konrad Lorenz: some infant animals become attached on individuals or even objects they e during a critical period after birth. Eg：丑小鸭 2、Harry Harlow: baby monkey with 2 artificial wire frame figures 1)When infant monkeys were frightened, they prefer the soft mother(with soft material) than the other mother(with bottle of milk) →the importance of physical comfort in the formation of attachment with parents. 2)The monkeys raid by wire frame mothers became more stresd and frightened than monkeys raid by real mothers when put into new situations. →The deprivation of an attachment with a real mother had long-term effects on monkey’s behavior. 3、Mary Ainsworth: strange situation Obrved infant’s reactions when placed into a strange situation: their parents left them alone for a short period of time and then returned. 1)Infants with cure attachments (about 66%) confidently explore the novel environment while the parents are prent, are distresd when they leave and come to the parents when they return. 此类最常见 2)Infants with avoidance attachments (about 21%) may resist being held by the parents and will explore the novel environment. They do not go to the parents for comfort when they return after an abnce. 3)Infants with anxious/ambivalent attachments/resistant attachments (about 12%) have ambivalent reactions to parents. They may show extreme stress when the parents leave but resist being comforted by them when they return. |
Parenting styles | Diana Baumrind: parent-child interactions (the rearch is correlational not causational) 1、Authoritarian parents: t strict standards for their children’s behavior and apply punishment for violation of the rules. Punishment more than reinforcement. 独裁 without explanation and discussion 2、Permissive parents: do not t clear guidelines for their children. The rules that do exist in the family are constantly changed or are not enforced consistently. 放任自由reaction would be unpredictable 3、Authoritative parents: have t, consistent standards for their children’s behavior, but the standards are reasonable and explained. The rationale for family rules are discusd with children old enough to understand them. 权威reasonable with explanation四级听力mp3 4、Children from: 1)authoritarian family are more likely to distrust others and be withdrawn from peers. 2)permissive family are more likely to have emotional control problems and are more dependent. 3)authoritative family are more socially capable and perform better academically. |
Stage theories | (可以按照婴儿-幼儿园-小学-中学-成年-中年-老年，以及在这些阶段发生的主要事情、学校的主要学习内容来辅助记忆) 1、Continuity VS discontinuity: 英语学习方法Stage theories are discontinuous theories of development. 2、Lev Vygotsky: Zone of proximal development 最近发展区（跳起来拿苹果，跳的距离就是~） A child’s zone of proximal development is the range of tasks the child can perform independently and tho tasks the child needs assistance with. Teachers/parents can provide ‘scaffolds’ for students to help them accomplish tasks at the upper end of their zone of proximal development, encouraging further cognitive development. |
Sigmund Freud | 1、(less scientifically verifiable but historically important) 2、The first person to theorize childhood stages 3、Sexual：means not the act of intercour but how we get nsual pleasure from the world. 人格发展的原理：性 4、Fixated：If we fail to resolve a significant conflict in our lives during one of the stages, we could become fixated (we might remain preoccupied with the behaviors associated with that stage) in the stage. |
Erik Erikson | 1、(less scientifically verifiable but historically important) 2、A neo-Freudian 3、Psychosocial stage: Our personality was profoundly influenced by our experiences with others. Consists of 8 stages, each stage centering on a specific social conflict. 人格发展的原理：社交 1)Trust VS mistrust: NEED 婴儿各种需求 Babies’ first social experience of the world centers on need fulfillment. braidBabies will learn whether or not they can trust that the world provides for their needs (mainly from their caregivers) This n of trust or mistrust will carry throughout the rest of our life. 2)Autonomy VS shame and doubt: CONTROL 学走路 Control body & control temper Toilet traning is the early effort to gain this control Most popular word: NO! 3)Initiative VS guilt: CURISOSITY 幼儿园 If we trust tho around us and feel in control of our bodies, we feel a natural curiosity about our surroundings. Children in this stage want to understand the world. Ask many many questions: WHY? 4)Industry VS inferiority: COMPETITION 小学，评比评分 the beginning of our formal education. For the first time we are asked to produce work that is evaluated. We expect to perform as well as our peers at game and school work. Inferiority complex自卑情结: we realized that we are behind or cannot do as well as our peers, we may feel anxious about our performance. 5)Identity VS role confusion: ROLE 青少年，who am I? In adolescence, Erikson felt our main social task is to discover what social identity we are most comfortable with. Might try different roles before finding the best fit An adolescent should figure out a stable n of lf before moving on to the next stage or risk having an identity crisis身份危机. 6)Intimacy VS isolation: RELATIONSHIP 青年，拍拖 We must figure our how to balance our ties and efforts between work and relationships with other people. 7)Generativity繁殖 VS stagnation: LIFE PLAN 成年，结婚生子 We try to ensure that our liev are going the way we want them to go. 8)Integrity VS despair: stationLOOK BACK 晚年 Toward the end of life, we look back at our accomplishments and decide if we are satisfied with them or not. |
Cognitive development | 1、Schemata：how children viewed the world through. 2、Assimilation: a process in which we incorporate our experiences into the existing schemata. 3、Accommodation: sometimes, information does not fit into or violates our schemata, so we must accommodate and change our schemata. 4、Humans go through this process of schema creation, assimilation and accommodation as we develop cognitively. Jean Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory: 1）Sensorimotor stage感觉运动: birth-approximately 2 years old babies start experiencing and exploring the world strictly through their ns. object permanence: Babies at first do not realize that objects continue to exist even when they are out of nsory range. 比如和bb玩：把手挡住脸Later, when they realize it, they have object permanence. 2）Pre-operational stage前-: 2-7 years old, 幼儿园: 语言/学数字 start to u symbols to reprent real-world objects the beginning of language Children in this stage are also egocentric自我中心 in their thinking since they cannot look at the world from anyone’s perspective but their own. 能够说“我”的姐姐是……但难以回答”你姐姐”的弟弟是谁？ 3）Concrete operations具体-:8-12 years old 小学 complex relationships between different characteristics of objects concepts of conrvation: the realization that properties of objects remain the same even then their shapes change. Eg: Volume/area/number 4）Formal operations形式抽象-: 初中: 一元二次方程 adult reasoning: hypothesis testing metacognition: we gain the ability to think about the way we think, we can trace our thought process and evaluate the effectiveness of how we solved a problem Criticisms of Piaget: 1.underestimated children: Many children go through the stages faster and enter them earlier than Piaget predicted. Piaget’s error may due to the way he tested children: rely too much on language 2.Other theorists wonder if development does not occur more continuously than Piaget described. Perhaps our cognitive skills develop more continuously and not in discrete stages. →The information-processing theory (a more continuous alternative to Piaget’s stage theory): It points our that our ability to memorize, interpret, and perceive gradually develop as we age rather than developing in distinct stages. Eg: our attention span gradually increas as we get older. So maybe children’s inability to understand conrvation of number has more to do with their ability to focus for a long periods of time. |
Moral development | Lawrence Kohlberg’s Moral Developmental Theory: He asked a subject group of children to think about specific moral situations: Heinz dilemma: a man named Heinz making a moral choice about whether to steal a drug he cannot afford in order to save his wife’s life. 1)Pre-conventional stage: 自我、回避惩罚钾怎么读 重庆高考成绩查询the youngest children in Kohlberg’s sample focus on making the decision most likely to avoid punishment. Their moral reasoning is limited to how the choice affects themlves. Answer to Heinz dilemma: Heinz should not steal the drug becau he might get caught and put into prison. 2)Conventional stage: 他人的看法 Children in this stage make a moral choice bad on how others will view them. Children learn conventional standards of what is right and wrong from their parents, peers, media and so on. They may try to follow the standards so that other people will e them as good. Answer to Heinz dilemma: Heinz should steal the drug becau then he could save his wife and people would think of him as a hero. 3)Post-conventional stage: 正义和价值 a person evaluating a moral choice using post-conventional reasoning examines the rights and values involved in the choice. Self-defined ethical principles involve. Answer to Heinz dilemma: Heinz should steal the drug becau his wife’s right to life outweighs the store owner’s right to personal property. Criticism of Kohlberg: Carol Gilligan pointed out that Kohlberg developed the model bad on the respons of boys. Gilligan theorized that Kohlberg’s assumption that boys and girls come to moral conclusions in the same way is incorrect. Boys have a more absolute view of what is moral while girls pay more attention to the situation factors. Recent rearch does not support Gilligan’s theory of gender difference in moral development. |
Gender and development | Different theories that try to explain how gender roles develop: 1)Bio-psychological (neuropsychological) theory: concentrate on the nature element in the naturel nurture combination that produces our gender role. One of the most significant findings is that women have larger corpus callosum than men. 2)Psychodynamic theory: Freud viewed gender development as a competition. Proper gender development occurs when a child realized that she or he cannot hope to bear their same-x parent at this competition and identifies with that person instead. However, to verify this idea empirically is difficult, if not impossible. 3)Social-cognitive theory: Social and cognitive psychologists concentrate on the effects society and our own thoughts about gender have on role development. Gender-schema theory explains that we internalize messages about gender into cognitive rules about how each gender should behave. |
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