各个逻辑错误的攻击方法和语言
一、调查类逻辑错误（survey/study）★题库中重中之重★
攻击：样本的质量和数量；采样过程是否科学合理
(1) Procedure 调查过程错误核心
A. Selective sample (片面性样本)
攻击点：样本选择不随机、不具代表性
攻击技巧：调查对象前一系列限定性定语或修饰词
B. Quantity of the sample
攻击点：样本数量少，即便有典型性也不能说明问题
模板:The number of respondents/samples, in itlf, does not warrant to be reprentative (代表性). For example, if the sample included
only _(某一方面), then the results would no doubt suggest (此处不
表示建议，因此不用虚拟语气，表示暗示)_.
Or if gross are considerable, _ (1500, 1200……) would account
for only a little percentage, which would render/lead to (导致) the
results of the survey meaningless.
正反逻辑：
正逻辑：顺着原文的条件，得出原文的结论。
例如：如果这个样本只包含了参加这个课程有效果的那部分学生，毫无疑问会得到这个课程有效的结果。
反逻辑：与原文相反的条件，得到相反的结论。
例如：如果这个样本只包含了参加这个课程无效的那部分学生，很有可能结果就暗示了该课程的无效性。
(2) Result of the survey 调查结果类错误（一句话）
A. Do the statistics make any meaning?
数据无意义指的是数据和结论不相关。
The statistic should be relating to the conclusion.
Argument 14
B. Are the statistics misleadingly vague 数据是否含糊
标志词：all，many， a number of，most 绝对化数量
percentage proportion 相对比值
注：绝对和相对缺一即要攻击，题库中没有任何一个题两个都有，所以肯定缺一。
1）攻击―无相对比值‖
The argument tells us that "many"(a number of) _.However, the speaker fails to indicate the percentage of_, so this evidence is far too vague to be meaningful.
2)攻击―无绝对数值‖
The author fails to provide information regarding the absolute number of _.
Argument 102
C. Respondents（这个词只要出现肯定回应者错误）回应者错误
羡慕近义词
AABC式成语Argument 11
The respondents must be statistically significant in number and reprentative of the overall_.Lacking information about the number of respondents and the number of people surveyed, it is impossible to access the validity of the results. if 200 persons were surveyed with only 2 responded, then the would be highly suspect.Until the questions are answered, the results of the survey are worthless as evidence for the conclusion.
The poll cited by the author is too vague to be informative. The claim does not indicate who conducted the poll, who responded, or when, where and how the poll was conducted.
(3) Who conducted the survey 调查者错误谁做了这个调查
标志词：主观代词
cross-bencher 中立机构[N]
nonaligned 中立的[A]
The surveyor must be nonaligned.
Argument 179
(4) When was the survey conducted? 调查时间错误
在时间轴上，做调查的时间和通过调查得出结论的时间在时间上要足够的近。
A threshold problem is that the editorial neglects to indicate how recently
the survey was actually conducted. When samples are ud to make general claims about a particular group, the samples should be clo enough in time to the generalization (得出结论这个概括性行为). All we
know in the editorial is that the survey was recently published. The less recent the survey itlf is, the less reliable the results are to indicate _current interest levels.
Argument 36 (难题)
调查类错误的写作词汇：
名词：survey, questionnaire, statistical study (统计研究), sample, specimen (样本的最文本化表述), sampling (采样的动作), quantity, quality,
statistic (统计量), poll, absolute value, valid, validity, statistical
validity, range (范围), spectrum, scope治肺的中药
动词：lect, choo, sample, investigate, examine, indicate, compri ( vt.
直接加成分，用于表示样本有什么构成)
形容词vs.副词：valid, authentic (可信的), random, quantitative, statistical, typical, reprentative, characteristic, far-ranging (广泛的),
comprehensive (综合的), expansive (广泛的，易扩张的), generally,
universally
二、充分必要条件类错误（Sufficient Evidence and Necessary Condition）（1）Sufficient Evidence充分条件
标志词：once禁毒诗
攻击点：A不充分导致B，B的发生还依赖于其他原因（C,）；
Argument 170
模板：The argument assumes too hastily that _ will necessarily result in /warrant/indicate… that the argument predicts. Perhaps, _ .
fails to sufficiently illustrate that
（2）Necessary Condition 必要条件
医院宣传语
作者在原文中一般会指出：A的发生是唯一导致B发生的必要条件；
攻击：没A的发生，如果有C 任何一个到两个因素的发生也可以导致B的发生
标志词：only,
太和公Argument 195（较难）数据含糊
爱的手抄报模板：The arguer fails to establish the causal relationship between A and B. It is highly possible that other factors contribute to B（归因于也可以用attribute B to A）. B might have resulted from C. It is also likely that D caud B. Lacking evidence that links A to B, it is presumptuous（武断的、莽撞的）to suggest that A was responsible for B.
充分必要条件的写作词汇归纳：
名词：condition、requirement、necessary、sufficient condition、sufficiency（充分性）、outcome、aftermath（结果、余波）
动词：constitute、establish、suffice、result（ing）、induce、render、exclude、rule of
形容词、副词：sufficient、necessary、----（必然的、必要的）、necessarily、required
上一篇
三、因果关系（Cau and Effect Fallacies）
时序因果关系类错误（Post hoc, ergo proper hoc）
错误原理：原文构建了两个错误，A发生在B之前，B发生在A之后，然后说由于A发生在B之前A就是B的原因。
攻击方式：说两个时间的时序关系不能反应其逻辑关系
标志词：becau，after this，since then，therefore，conquence（因此）、conquently
Argument 2
Argument 102
构造一个段落：
Bad on the fact that A occurred after B, the editor infers that B should be
responsible for A. However, the quence of the events, in itlf（在他本身来说）, does not suffice to prove that earlier incident（event）caud the later one. It might have resulted from some other events instead: （这里列举原因）to just a few possibilities（等等以上这些原因）. Without ruling out scenarios（场景）such as the, the editor cannot establish a cau-and-effect（专门指代因果关系）relationship between A and B upon which the editor's recommendation depends.
该段落focus on了两个词：quence、logic
同时因果错误（Concurrence）
错误原理：在时间轴上的某一个段内或某一个时刻上，AB两个事件同时发生，但作者在两事件中强行加入了逻辑联系或因果联系。
标志词：meanwhile、also、with、during、under、over（在…期间）、parallel Argument 153
Argument 85 （有两层同时因果错误）
A版本：
因果关系的写作词汇归纳：
名词：relation、causality（因果关系文本化表达）、relevance、conjunction、connection、nexus（legal nexus）、association、linkage 动词：associate、link、connect、relate to、ignore、overlook、neglect、lo sight of
形容词和副词：relational、relevant、related、carcal、、quent（次序的）、traceable（追溯到的）
四、范围变化类错误（Changing Scope Fallacies）
1、偷换概念（Different concepts）
2、由个体推整体（What is true for a member is also true for the group）
3、整体推个体（Assuming that characteristics of a group apply to each group member）
其中第二个和第三个比较常见，但是第一个也有二三十道题。往往和调查类错误嵌套在一起。
范围变化类错误的表征现象：
a 题干的引言单据和正文总体出现了一个大的纵向的错误
b 正文内部论据和结论之间发生范围的变换或者缩小
标志词：throughout（the country）、nationwide、statewide（都表示州而不表示全国）、overall、across、average
偷换概念（Different concepts）
Argument 167：
攻击方法：
作者没有对说明的东西给出严格的定义以至于他混淆了这个概念。
模板：
A threshold problem involves the definition of A. The arguer fails to define this critical term. If A is defined as B, then how C, is irrelevant to whether 结论. In short, without a clear definition of A, it is impossible to asss the strength of the argument.
∙由个体推整体（What is true for a member is also true for the group）Argument 8：
以彼之道还彼之身（又故意设置的话，一定要找出来，不然会扣分。题库中这样的题有二三十道题）
模板：The argument rets on the assumption that 个体案例typify nationwide 整体情况. If this is not the ca, then it is entirely possible that 在另一个地方，上述个案的结果不会发生相同的情况.Thus, lacking more marketing information about _ nationwide, it is difficult to asss the merit of the memo's recommendation.
Argument 206：重要
平均值类错误（Average）
错误原理：平均值不能概括整体信息，或者平均值的采样根本不包含该个体。Argument 240：
∙整体推个体（Assuming that characteristics of a group apply to each group member）
模板：One problem with the argument is that it assumes that the nationwide(characteristics of a group apply to every member of that group) statistics about _applies equally to个体成员, yet this might not be the ca, for a variety of possible reasons. Perhaps _ ; or perhaps _. Without ruling out such possibilities, the author cannot justifiably conclude that _.
B模板：（单句可以灵活使用当不是主要逻辑错误是，用一句话合并到主要逻辑错误当中去，有主有次）The overall trend in the nation may not reply the basic the conditions of this specific area.
写作词汇：
名词：scope、localization（本土化、地方化）、diversity（多样性）、variety （变化性）、individual、unit（整体）、whole（抽象的整体概念）
动词：extend（延伸）、expand（放大）、broaden、enlarge、spread、shrink、distinguish、discriminate（也有歧视的意思）
形容词和副词：overall、generally、extensive、entire、divers、dissimilar、multiplex （最文本化的表达：多元的）
五、考虑问题不全面（Incomplete Thought）
1、没有考虑一个事物的正反两面性（Failing to weigh the advantage and disadvantage thoroughly）
攻击：有好处也可能带来弊端，弊端可能大于好处，或反之
Argument 206
