A In the early days of mountaineering, questions of safety, standards of practice, and environmental impact were not widely considered. The sport gained traction following the successful 1786 ascent of Mont Blanc, the highest peak in Western Europe, by two French mountaineers, Jacques Balmat and Michel-Gabriel Paccard. This event established the beginning of modern mountaineering, but the sole consideration over the next hundred years was the success or failure of climbers in reaching the summit and claiming the prestige of having made the first ascent.
早期的登山运动并不会对安全性，可行性和环境因素多做考量。这项运动在1786年两位法国登山者杰克斯．包马特以及帕卡德成功登上西欧最高峰白朗峰之后受到关注和追捧。这次成功标志着现代登山运动的开始。但在之后的一百多年里，攀登者登顶的成败以及登上从前无人造访的山峰而获得的声望成为唯一的关注点。
B Toward the end of the nineteenth century, however, developments in technology spurred debate regarding climbing practices. Of particular concern in this era was the introduction of pitons (metal spikes that climbers hammer into the rock face for leverage)
劲头and the u of belaying① techniques. A few, such as Italian climber Guido Ray, supported the methods as ways to render climbing less burdensome and more 'acrobatic'. Others felt that they were only of value as a safety net if all el failed. Austrian Paul Preuss went so far as to eschew all artificial aids, scaling astonishing heights using only his shoes and his bare hands. Albert Mummery, a well-known British mountaineer and author who climbed the European Alps, and, more famously, the Himalayas, where he died at the age of 39 attempting a notoriously difficult ascent, developed the notion of 'fair means' as a kind of informal protocol by which the u of 'walk-through' guidebooks and equipment such as ladders and grappling hooks were discouraged.
然而，在19世纪末，技术工艺的发展引发了对登山保护措施的讨论。其中对岩钉（登山者攀岩时钉入岩壁的金属钉状物）和系索技术的使用尤其受到关注。包括意大利登山家圭多雷在内的少数人这些工具能使登山过程中累赘更少，更具“杂技性”。其他人则认为这些工具只具有在失败时作为一张安全网的价值。美国登山家保罗·普罗伊斯为此拒绝使用鞋子除外的所有辅助工具，徒手攀登的高度同样令人震惊。曾经登顶过位于欧洲的阿尔卑斯山的
著名英国登山家，作家阿尔伯特・墨梅里在39岁时向更具名气，登顶难度极大的喜马拉雅山发出挑战，却不幸在途中遇难。他认为使用工具是“不择手段”的，因为不能使用穿行指南以及像梯子、抓钩这样的工具是已经是一项不成文规定了。
C By the 1940s, bolts had begun to replace pitons as the climber's choice of equipment, and criticism surrounding their u was no less fierce. In 1948, when two American climbers scaled Mount Brusls in the Canadian Rockies using a small number of pitons and bolts, climber Frank Smythe wrote of their efforts: 'I still regard Mount Brusls as unclimbed, and my feelings are no different from tho I should have that were I to hear that a helicopter had deposited its pasnger on the summit of that mountain just so that he could boast that he had trodden an untrodden mountain top.'
婚纱电影上世纪四十年代，登山者对工具的选择从岩钉转向了膨胀栓。对使用它的批评声仍然不绝于耳。1948年，两位美国登山者利用岩钉和膨胀栓登顶位于加拿大落基山脉的布鲁塞尔斯山，对此登山家弗兰克·斯迈斯这样评价道：“我仍然认为布鲁塞尔斯山是无法登顶的，对此我的感觉就和听到直升机将乘客送达山顶并向他人夸耀自己征服了无人涉足的顶峰无异。”
D解放思想大讨论心得体会 Climbing purists aside, it was not until the 1970s that the general tide began to turn against bolting and pitons. The USA, and much of the western world, was waking up to the damage it had been causing to the planet, and environmentalist campaigns and new government policies were becoming widespread. This new awareness and nsitivity to environmental issues spilled over into the rock climbing community. As a result, a stripped-down style of rock climbing known as 'clean climbing' became widely adopted. Clean climbing helped prerve rock faces and, compared with older approaches, it was much simpler to practi. This was partly due to the hallmark of clean climbing - the u of nuts - which were favoured over bolts becau they could be placed into the rock wall with one hand while climbers maintained their grip on the rock with the other.
直到上世纪70年代，登山运动净化者开始兴起反系栓、反岩钉运动。美国和很多西方国家开始意识到这些工具对地球带来的危害，环保人士的呼吁和政府制定的政策使这样的意识深入人心。对环保问题的意识和敏感性也深入到攀岩群体之中。最后，被称作“清洁攀岩”的简装攀岩方式被广泛接受。“清洁攀岩”有助于保护岩壁，并且与旧方式相比更加便于行动。这归功于“清洁攀岩”方式的特色——对岩石塞的使用。它比岩钉和膨胀栓更受到欢
迎，因为攀岩者在用一只手卡住岩石时，可以用单手将其固定在墙上。
墙的作文E Not everyone embraced the clean climbing movement, however. A decade later, debates over two more developments were erupting. The first related to the practice of chipping, in which climbers chip away pieces of rock in order to create tiny cracks in which to inrt their fingers. The other major point of contention was a process that involves tting bolts in rever from the top of the climb down. Rappel bolting makes almost any rock face climbable with relative ea, and as a result of this new technique, the sport has lost much of its risk factor and n of pioneering spirit; indeed, it has become more about muscle power and technical mastery than a psychological trial of fearlessness under pressure. Becau of this shift in focus, many amateur climbers have flocked to indoor climbing gyms, where the risk of rious harm is negligible.
然而，并非所有人都接受“清洁攀岩”运动。上世纪八十年代，多种攀岩工具的发展引发了激烈的议论。首先是凿壁行为，攀岩者在岩壁上凿出小凹槽以便他们卡进手指。另一个争论的焦点是在终点使用膨胀栓从反方向爬下的攀岩过程。栓索下降几乎使攀岩难度大大减
轻，而且新技术的使用使得这项运动丧失了风险性和首创精神。相比于面对压力时克服恐惧的心理锻炼，攀岩运动逐渐对肌肉力量和技术使用更加看重。因为运动焦点的改变，很多业余攀岩者纷纷涌向了严重伤害的风险性可以忽略不计的室内攀岩馆。
万众一心众志成城
F Given the environmental damage rock climbing can cau, this may be a positive outcome. It is ironic that most rock climbers and mountaineers love the outdoors and have great respect for the majesty of nature and the impressive challenges she pos, but that in the pursuit of their goals they inevitably trample nsitive vegetation, damaging and disturbing delicate flora and lichens which grow on ledges and cliff faces. Two rearchers from a Canadian university, Doug Larson and Michelle McMillan, have found that rock faces that are regularly climbed have lost up to 80% of the coverage and diversity of native plant species. If that were not bad enough, non-native species have also been inadvertently introduced, having been carried in on climbers' boots.
>教学改进措施
