My Focus on Reformation
施工招标 This term I have learned the cour of European culture, it remembered me of the lessons I had in the nior high school. I have spent much time on understanding it,so now I want to show my views on the Reformation. As we all know, the Protestant reformation is a significant part of Western Renaissance which lasts from 14th to 17th century. This historic and prominent event aroud the establishment of Protestantism. Therefore a basic knowledge of the Reformation movement and the ri of Protestantism is of great importance, particularly in the study of the beginnings of capitalism. The Reformation of the 16th century was a movement to fight against the church of medieval abus and to restore the doctrines and practices that the reformers believed conformed with the Bible and the New Testament model of the church. This led to an immer conflict between the Roman Catholic Church and the reformers who beliefs and practices came to be called Protestantism. The causal factors involved in the Reformation were complex and interdependent. Precursors of the Reformation proper included the movements founded by
John Wycliff and Jan Hus during the 14th and 15th centuries. The reform groups, however, weren’t congregated and were largely suppresd. Changes in the intellectual and political climate were among the factors that made the reform movement of the 16th century much more irresistible. The cultural Renaissance that occurred during the preceding century and a half was a necessary preliminary stage, becau it raid the level of education, reemphasized the ancient classics, contributed to thought and learning, and offered Humanism and rhetoric as an alternative to Scholasticism. Especially through its emphasis on the biblical languages and clo attention to the literary texts, the Renaissance made possible . That great strike spreading through the church was already evident at the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215, at which Pope Innocent III called for reform. The papacy itlf was weakened by its move from Rome to Avignon, by the Great Schism of the papacy, which lasted four decades thereafter, and by the doctrine that supreme authority in the church belonged to general councils . A significant political change occurred during the later Middle Ages as well. The Holy Roman Empire, which had lost cohesion partly as a result of its struggle with th
e papacy in the Investiture Controversy, was weakened by the growth of virtually independent territorial princedoms and free imperial cities. Economically, the ri of commerce and the shift to a moneyed economy had the effect of creating a stronger middle class in a more urban society. The church met financial difficulty during this time becau it had become involved in the manorial economy, possd landed wealth, and had trouble meeting its extensive administrative, diplomatic, and judicial obligations. The Reformation began in Germany on Oct. 31, 1517, when Martin Luther, a university theological professor at Wittenberg, posted 95 thes inviting debate over the legitimacy of the sale of indulgences. The papacy viewed this as a gesture of rebellion and proceeded to take steps against Luther as a heretic. The German humanists supported Luther's cau during the early years. The reformer's three famous works of 1520, He believed that salvation was a free gift to persons through the forgiveness of sins by God's grace alone and received by them through faith in Christ. The Reformation spread rapidly as a popular movement. It penetrated Poland, Bohemia, Moravia, Hungary, and Transylvania. As it developed, it went beyond the institu仪式之礼
tional reform of church and became one of the mainstreams for the liberation of national politics from the Roman interference and for the liberation of economic domination by the Roman Catholic Church. Martin Luther propod direct communication with God, which disclod the absolute control of Roman Catholic Church was now losing ground. In conquence, he declared that all believers were priests, so he advocated all occupations were holy no matter your class was high or low. In spite of his democratic ideas, however, Martin Luther stoutly oppod the peasants’ war (1524-1525) in Germany. A revolt his own spirits helped to foster. In the history of Germany, Martin Luther was more than a religious leader, he was a fighter for democracy and nationalism, a humanist who devoted himlf to constructing a competent educational system and a writer who forceful language helped fix the standards of the modern German language. Through Lutheran tracts and merchant missionaries, the evangelical movement spread to France, where it won many converts, among whom was John Calvin. As a French theologian, he rejected the papal authorities aud concentrated on the work of reformation. In 1536, Calvin went to Geneva, and then he was persuaded to stay
in Geneva and helped organize the cond major surge of Protestantism. In 1541, he gave a new organization to the church consisting of pastors, doctors, elders, and deacons, which later came to be known as the Presbyterian government. His 土豆丝炒肉片Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536) had great influence in France, Scotland and among the Puritans in England. Geneva became the center of a great missionary enterpri that reached into France, where the Huguenots became so powerful that a synod met in Paris in 1559 to organize a nationwide church of some 2,000 reformed congregations. As a result of the French Wars of Religion, the Huguenot party was checked and the French monarchy kept the kingdom Catholic. Calvinism stresd the absolute authority of the God’s will, holding that only tho specially elected by God are saved. Its belief was that any form of sinfulness was was a likely sign of damnation whereas cealess work could be a sign of salvation. This belief rves the ri of bourgeoisie on its path so that many historians suggested that Calvinism was one of the main cours of the capitalist spirit. Although England had a religious reform movement influenced by Lutheran ideas, the English Reformation occurred as a direct result of King
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Henry VIII's efforts to divorce his first wife, Catherine of Aragon. The formal break with the papacy was masterminded by Thomas Cromwell, the king's chief minister. Under Cromwell's direction Parliament pasd the Act in Restraint of Appeals , followed by the Act of Supremacy (1534) fully defining the royal headship over the church. As archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer annulled Henry's marriage to Catherine, allowing the king to marry Anne Boleyn. Although Henry himlf wished to make no doctrinal changes, Cromwell and Cranmer authorized the translation of the Bible into English, and Cranmer was largely responsible for the Book of Common Prayer, adopted under Henry's successor, Edward VI. The gains that Protestantism made under Edward were lost under his Catholic sister Mary I. The religious ttlement (1559) under Elizabeth I, however, guaranteed the Anglican establishment. An obvious result of the Reformation was the division of Western Christendom into Protestant and Catholic areas, and protestantism aimed at overthrowing the absolute rule of the Roman Catholic Church. Another result was the development of national churches. After the Reformation, national churches weaken their dominant place and never restored.
What’s more, in spirit, absolute obedience became out-moded and the spirit of quest, debate, was ushered in by the reformists. Finally, the Reformation introduced much radical change in thought and in ecclesiastical and political organization and beginning capitalism. Thus began many of the trends that are taken to characterize the preceding stage of the modern world. That’s all what I want to express.Thanks for your reading.
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