第一章Introduction
1.Linguistics定义It is generally defined as the scientific study of language. Nowadays, the generally accepted definition of language is that language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols ud for human communication.
2.The scope of linguistics 语言学的主要分支是什么。每个分支的研究对象是什么？
1.General linguistics, which is the study of language as a whole and which deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study
①Phonetics, which studies the sounds that are ud in linguistic communication
② Phonology, which studies how sounds are put together and ud in communication
③Morphology, which studies the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words
④Syntax, which studies how morphemes and words are combined to form ntences
⑤Semantics, which is the study of meaning in language.
⑥Pragmatics, which is the study of meaning not in isolation, but in context of u
⑦Sociolinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to society
⑧Psycholinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to the workings of mind.
⑨Applied linguistics, which is concerned about the application of linguistic findings in linguistic studies; in a narrow n, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and cond languages.
Other related branches are anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics, mathematical linguistics, and computational linguistics.
3.现代语言学与传统语法有什么区别？
Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is bad on "high "(religious, literary) written language . It ts models for language urs to follow. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are bad on authentic, and mainly spoken language data. It is suppod to be scientific and objective and the task of linguists is suppod to describe the language people actually u, whether it is "corr
ect" or not.
4.Some important distinction in linguistics 语言学五对基本概念
1、descriptive(描述性) :A linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually u.
2、prescriptive(规定性): It aims to lay down rules for ―correct‖ behaviors. i.e. what they should say and what they should not to say.
1、synchronic(共时语言学): It refers to the study of variation in language in different places and among different groups at a given point in time.
2、diachronic (历时语言学): Studies language change over various periods of time and at various historical stages.
什么叫共时研究Synchronic study;？什么叫历时研究diachronic study？
The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the de-scription of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in rime, while
a diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.
1、speech and writing are the two media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.
1、langue(语言): refers to abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of the speech community. It is the t of conventions and rules which language urs all have to abide by. Such as: In English ntence must have subject and predica te.
2、parole(言语):refers to the realization of langue in actual u. It is concrete u of the conventions and the application of the rules.
1、competence(语言能力):As the ideal ur‘s knowledge of the rules of his language
2、performance(语言应用):the actual realization of his knowledge in linguistic communication.
5、What is language?
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols ud for human communication. Language is a syst
elements of language are combined according to rules. Language is arbitrary .becau the fact that different languages have different words for the some object.
Language is vocal becau the primary medium is sound for all languages. Language is symbols.
The term ―human‖ in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.
6、人类语言的甄别性特征design features是什么？（五个）
Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. The American Charles Hockett specified 12 design features, 5 of which will be discusd here.
Arbitrariness：任意性there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds .A good example is the fact that different sounds are ud to refer to the same object in different language, but it is not entirely arbitrary.
Productivity：创造性language make possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by it urs. Productivity is unique to human language.
Duality(二重性):Language is a system, which consists of two ts of structures, or two levels at the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning such as morphemes and words.
Displacement：移位性Language can be ud to refer to things which are prent or not prent, real or imagined matters in past, prent or future. or in far-away place. In other words, language can be ud to refer to context removed from the immediate situations of speakers.
Cultural transmission(文化传递性) While we are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew.
5. Chomsky的语言能力和语言使用各指什么？
American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950‘s propod the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal ur‘s
knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized t of rules enables the language ur to produce and understand an infinitely large number of ntences and recognize ntences that are u
ngrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker‘s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes becau of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard.
7、Saussure 是如何区分语言和言语的？
The distinction between langue, and parole was made by the famous Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue and parole are French words. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual u. Langue is the t of conventions and rules which language urs all have to follow while parole is the concrete u of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; It is not the language people actually u, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.第二章Phonology音系学
1、语言交际的两大媒介是什么？哪一个是基本的交际媒介？为什么？
The speech and writing are two media or substance ud by natural language as vehicles for communication.
Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form, becau the spoken form is prior to the written form and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form of language.
Linguists are not interested in all sounds; they are concerned with only tho sounds that are produced by the human speech organs.
2、What is Phonetics Phonetics is defined as the study of phonic medium of language. It‘s concerned with all sounds
3、语音学的三个分支?研究的对象各是什么？
Phonetics looks at speech sounds from 3distinct but related point of view. They are: Articulatory phonetics(发音语音学): It studies the human speech organs and the way in which thee speech sounds are produced.
Acoustic phonetics听觉语音学: It studies the physical properties of the speech sounds; it deals with t
he sound waves through the u of such machines as a spectrograph.
Auditory phonetics is the study of the perception of sounds by the human ear.that occur in the world‘s language.
Articulation phonetics声学语音:How a speaker us his speech organs articulate the sounds.
4、Organs of speech : pharyngeal cavity–the throat oral cavity—the mouth nasal cavity—the no
5、什么叫浊音化？它是如何形成的？
V oicing 浊音化is the result of the vibration of the vocal cords. When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration, the sounds produced in such a way are voiceless. When vocal cords are held together tautly so that the air stream vibrates them, the sounds produced in this way are voiced.
6、清音化V oiceless: when the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration,
7、宽式标音和严式标音有什么区别？
The broad transcription is the transcription of sounds by using one letter to reprent one sound.
The narrow transcription is the transcription with diacritics to show detailed articulatory features of sounds.
8、英语的语音的分类？
English sounds can be classified two categories: vowels and consonants Consonants: 辅音the sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air steam at some point of the vocal tract.
V owels元音: the sounds in the production of which no articulators come very clo together and the air stream pass through the vocal tract without obstruction.
9. 英语的辅音是如何分类的？
1) by place of articulation :
a. bilabial such as [p],[b],[m],[w]
b. labiodental such as [f],[v]
c. dental such as [θ],[ ]
d. alveolar such as [t],[d],[s],[z],[n],[l],[r]
e. palatal such as [∫], [ ],[ t∫ ], [d ], [ ]
f. velar such as [k], [g], [ ]
g. glottal such as [h]
2) by manner of articulation. 发音方式
a. Stops such as [p],[b],[t],[d],[k],[g]
b. Fricatives such as [f],[v],[s],[z],[ θ],[ ], [∫ ], [ ], [h]
c. Afficates such as [t∫], [d ]
d. Liquids such as [l], [r]
e. Nasals such as [n],[m],[ ]
f. Glides such as [w], [j]
10. 英语的元音是如何分类的？
1) V owels may be distinguished as front vowels such as [i:] [i] [e] [ ] [a], central vowels such as [ :], [ ],[ ]and back vowels such as[u:] [ ] [ :] and [ :] in terms of the position of the tongue in the mouth.
2) According to how wide our mouth is opened, we classify the vowels into four groups: clo vowels such as [i:],[ i],[u:],[ ], mi-clo vowels such as[e], [ : ] , mi-open vowels such as [ ], [ : ] , and open vowels such as [?], [a], [Λ] and [ɑ:].
3) According to the shape of the lips, vowels are divided into rounded vowels and unrounded vowels.
4) The English vowels can also be classified into long vowels and short vowels according to the length of the sound. The long vowels include [i:] [ :] [ : ] [u:] [ɑ:]，
while the rest are short vowels.
11、Phonology音系学: the study of sound system—the inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall.
12.语音学phonetics和音系学Phonology有什么区别？
They differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds ud in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they posss, how they can be classified. Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how the sounds are ud to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
13、音素、音位和音位变体有什么区别？
Phones(音素) are the speech sounds we u when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or gment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.; some do, some don‘t.
A phoneme （音位is a basic unit in phonology; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not a sound, but a collection of distinctive phonetic features. In actual speech, a phoneme is realized phonetically as a certain phone.
Allophone（音位变体）The different phones which can reprent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.
14.什么叫音位对立Phonemic contrast？什么叫互补分布complementary distribution？什么是最小对立对？
If two phonetically similar sounds can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast. If two phonetically similar sounds are two allophones of the same phoneme and they occur in different environments, they are said to be in complementary distribution
Minimal pair（最小对立）:Two sound combinations identical in every way except in one sound element that occurs in the same position.
15、Some rules in phonology: 音系学的一些规则（三个）
1 Sequential rules The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called quential rules, which is language-specific.
2 A ssimilation rulesIt assimilates one sound to another by ―copying‖ a feature of a quential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar, caud by articulatory or physiological process.
3. Deletion rules
It tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically reprented. 16.Supragmental features：超切分特征the phonemic features that occur above the level of the gments .the main supragmental features are: stress, tone, intonation.
1 Stress Word stress and ntence stress. In English, word stress is free. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. Word stress may also be employed to distinguish meaning in the combinations of –ing forms and nouns; Sentence stress refers to the relative force, which is given to the words in a ntence.
2 Tone Tones are pitch variations, which are caud by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.
