Chapter 1 Invitations to Li禁止英文
nguistics
1.Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols ud for human communication. To give the barest definition language is a means of verbal communication. It is instrumental social and conventional. Linguistics is usually defined as the science of language or alternatively as the scientific study of language. It concerns with the systematic study of language or a discipline that describes all aspects of language and formulates theories as to how language works.
2.Design features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement etc.
Arbitrariness refers to forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning Language is arbitrary. There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds even with onomatopoeic words.
Duality refers to t卡通生日蛋糕
he property of having two levels of structure. The units of the primary level are compod of elements of the condary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.
☺the lower or the basic level---- the sound units or phonemes which are meaningless, but can be grouped and regrouped into words.
☺the higher level ----morphemes and words which are meaningful
Creativity refers to Words can be ud in new ways to mean new things and can be instantly understood by people who have never come across that usage before.
Displacement refers to the fact that language can be ud to refer to things which are prent or not prent real or imagined matters in the past prent or future or in far away places. It means that human languages enable their urs to symbolize objects events and concepts which are not prent in time and space at the moment of communication
3. Jakobson’s classification of functions of language.
Jakobson : In his article Linguistics and Poetics (1960) defined six primary factors of any speech event: speaker, addre, context,message, code, contact.
1).Referential function 所指功能2).Poetic function诗学功能3).Emotive function感情功能
4).Conative function意动功能5).Phatic function交感功能6).Metalingual元语言功能
Hu Zhuanglin’ classification of functions of language and u some examples to illustrate them.
1).Informative function 信息功能2).Interperumount命令
sonal function 人际功能3).Performative function 施为功能4).Emotive function 感情功能5).Phatic communion 交感性谈话6).Recreational function 娱乐性功能7).Metalingual function 元语言功能
4. What are the major differences between Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole and Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?
According to Saussure,(1) Langue is abstract, parole is specific to the speaking situation;(2) Langue is not actually spoken by an individual , parole is always a naturally occurring event;(3) Langue is relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confud facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation.
According to N. Chomsky,Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of ntences and to recog发型大全
nize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities; A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker's performance does not always match or equal his suppod competence; Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other word语录图片
s, they sho
uld discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.
Chapter 2 Speech Sounds
1.Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted and received. It is concerned with the actual physical articulation, transmission and perception of speech sounds.
Phonology is esntially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds. It is concerned with the abstract and mental aspect of the sounds in language.
Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how the sounds are ud to convey meaning in linguistic communication
1.Lips
2.Teeth
3.Teeth ridge (alveolar)齿龈
4.Hard palate 硬腭
5.Soft palate (velum) 软腭
6.Uvula 小舌
7.Tip of tongue
8.Blade of tongue 舌面
9.Back of tongue
10.V ocal cords 声带
11.Pharyngeal cavity 咽腔
12.Nasal cavity 鼻腔
2.Phone（音素): the smallest perceptible discreet gment of sound in a stream of speech. (in the mouth)
Phoneme （音位）：A sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of a word from another in a given language is a phoneme. (in the mind)
allophone (音位变体) : phonic variants of a phoneme are called allophone of the same phoneme. / / = phoneme [ ] = phone { } = t of allophones
IPA:the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet.
Minimal pairs 最小对立体
Three requirements for identifying minimal pairs:
1) different in meaning; 2) only one phoneme different;
3) the different phonemes occur in the same phonetic environment.
< a minimal pair: pat-fat; lit-lip; phone-tone
minimal t: pat, mat, bat, fat, cat, hat, etc
Phonetically similar sounds might be related in two ways.
If they are two distinctive phonemes, they might form a contrast; e.g. /p/and /b/ in [pit] and [bit];
If they are allophones of the same phoneme, then they don’t distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution, i.e. they occur in different phonetic context
Supragmental features 超音段特征
—features that involve more than single sound gment, such as stress （重音），length（音程）, rhythm （节奏），tone（音调），intonation（语调）及juncture（音渡）．
Chapter 3 Lexicon/Morphology
1. Word
1.1 Three ns of “word”
(1) A physically definable unit: a cluster of sound gments or letters between two pau or
blank.
(2) Word both as a general term and as a specific term.
(3) A grammatical unit
1.2 Identification of words
Some factors can help us identify words:
(1) Stability
(2) Relative uninterruptibility
(3) A minimum free form
1.3 The classification of word
Words can be classified in terms of:
(1) Variable vs. invariable words (可变词/不可变词)
(2) Grammatical words vs. lexical words (语法词/词汇词)
(3) Clod-class words vs. open-class words (封闭词/开放词)
(4) word class(词类)
(1) Variable vs. invariable words (可变词/不可变词)
the former refers to words having inflective changes（屈折变化）while the latter refers to words having no such endings.
Variable words: follow; follows; following; followed
Invariable words: since; when; ldom; through; hello
(2) Grammatical words vs. lexical words (function words and content words.语法词/词汇词)
The former refers to tho words expressing grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions(连词), prepositions（介词）, articles(冠词), and pronouns（代词）;
the latter refers to words having lexical meanings, tho which refer to substance, action etc. such as n., v., adj., and adv..
(3) Clod-class words vs. open-class words (封闭词/开放词)
the former refers to words who membership is fixed or limited; e.g. pron., prep., conj., article. the latter of which the membership is infinite or unlimited. e.g.: n., v., adj., adv.
(4) word class (词类)
The traditionally recognized word class are: noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection, article, etc. More word class have been introduced into grammar: particles 小品词/语助词(go by, look for, come up);
auxiliaries 助词(can, be, will);
pro-form 替代词(do, so);
determiners 前置词/ 限定词(all, every, few, plenty of, this).
2. The formation of word
2.1 Morphology 形态学
Definition：Morphology is a branch of linguistics, which studie本地美食
s the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
The two fields (p64)
Inflectional morphology: the study of inflections
Derivational morphology: the study of word-formation
3. Lexical change
3.1 Lexical change proper（词本身的变化）
Invention 新造词Blending混合词Abbreviation 缩合词Acronym首字母缩略词
back-formation 逆构词analogical creation 类比造词Borrowing 借词、外来词
definition:
1) Morphology:Morphology is a branch of linguistics, which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
2) Terminology 术语解释
Morpheme: The smallest unit of meaning, which can not be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether太原旅行
it is lexical or grammatical.
Free morphemes: morphemes which may constitute words by themlves．
Bound morphemes:morphemes which can not be ud by themlves, but must be combined with other morphemes to form words
Inflectional morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes which manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, ten, degree and ca.
Derivational morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes, added to existing forms to create new words. There are three kinds according to position: prefix, suffix and infix.
Chapter 4 Syntax From Word to Text
Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form ntences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in ntence structures.
Endocentric Constructions:is one who distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which rves as a definable centre or head.
Exocentric Constructions:refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group Category: refers to the defining properties of the general units:
Categories of the noun: number, gender, ca and countability
Categories of the verb: ten, aspect, voice
three kinds of syntactic relations:
relations of position位置关系
Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the quential arrangement of words in a language.
relations of substitutability 可替代性关系
The Relation of Substitutability refers to class or ts of words substitutable for each other grammatically in ntences with the same structure.
relations of co-occurrence 同现关系
It means that words of different ts of claus may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another t or class to form a ntence or a particular part of a ntence.
Immediate Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis)
Immediate constituent analysis is a form of linguistic review that breaks down longer phras or ntences into their constituent parts, usually into single words. This kind of analysis is sometimes abbreviated as IC analysis, and gets ud extensively by a wide range of language experts.
Endocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents: Coordination and subordination
Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or .
Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.
Characteristics of subjects
A) Word order: Subject ordinarily precedes the verb in the statement
B) Pro-forms(代词形式) : The first and third person pronouns in English appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subject
C) Agreement with the verb: In the simple prent ten, an -s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singular, but the number and person of the object or any other element in the ntence have no effect at all房产介绍
on the form of the verb
D) Content questions (实意问句): If the subject is replaced by a question word (who or what), the rest of the ntence remains unchanged
E) Tag question (反意问句): A tag quest雷开头的成语
ion is ud to ek confirmation of a statement. It always contains a pronoun which refers back to the subject, and never to any other element in the ntence.
