2023年4月17日发(作者：会议ppt)Grammar
For the rules of the English language, e English grammar. For
the topic in mathematics, logic, and theoretical computer science,
e Formal grammar.
Not to be confud with Grammer or Krammer.
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v t e
In linguistics, grammar is the t of structural rules that governs
the composition of claus, phras, and words in any given natural
language. The term refers also to the study of such rules, and this
field includes morphology, syntax, and phonology, often
complemented by phonetics, mantics, and pragmatics. Linguists
do not normally u the term to refer to orthographical rules,
although usage books and style guides that call themlves
grammars may also refer to spelling and punctuation.[citation
needed]
Contents [hide]
1 U of the term
2 Etymology
3 History
4 Development of grammars
5 Grammar frameworks
6 Education
7 See also
8 Notes and references
9 External links
[edit] U of the termThe term grammar is often ud by
non-linguists with a very broad meaning. As Jeremy Butterfield puts
it: "Grammar is often a generic way of referring to any aspect of
Englis我操综合
h that people object to."[1] However, linguists u it in a much
more specific n. Speakers of a language have in their heads a t
of rules[2] for using that language. This is a grammar, and—at least
in the ca of one's native language—the vast majority of the
information in it is acquired not by conscious study or instruction,
but by obrving other speakers; much of this work is done during
infancy. Language learning later in life, of cour, may involve a
greater degree of explicit instruction.[3]
The term "grammar" can also be ud to describe the rules that
govern the linguistic behaviour of a group of speakers. The term
"English grammar", therefore, may have veral meanings. It may
refer to the whole of English grammar—that is, to the grammars of
all the speakers of the language—in which ca, the term
encompass a great deal of variation.[4] Alternatively, it may refer
only to what is common to the grammars of all, or of the vast
majority of English speakers (such as subject–verb–object word
order in simple declarative ntences). Or it may refer to the rules of
a particular, relatively well-defined variety of English (such as
Standard English).
"An English grammar" is a specific description, study or analysis
of such rules. A reference book describing the grammar of a
language is called a "reference grammar" or simply "a grammar." A
fully explicit grammar that exhaustively describes the grammatical
constructions of a language is called a descriptive grammar. This
kind of linguistic description contrasts with linguistic prescription,
an attempt to discourage or suppress some grammatical
constructions, while promoting others. For example, preposition
stranding occurs widely in Germanic languages and has a long
history in English. John Dryden, however, objected to it (without
explanation),[5] leading other English speakers to avoid the
construction and discourage its u.[6]
[edit] EtymologyFurther information: Grapheme
The word grammar derives from Greek ὴ
(grammatik techn), which means "art of letters", from
(gramma), "letter", itlf from (graphein), "to draw, to
write".[7]
[edit] HistoryFurther information: History of linguistics
The first systematic grammars originated in Iron Age India, with
Yaska (6th c. BC), Pṇini (4th c. BC) and his commentators Pingala
(ca. 200 BC), Katyayana, and Patanjali (2nd c. BC). In the West,
grammar emerged as a discipline in Hellenism from the 3rd c. BC
forward with authors like Rhyanus and Aristarchus of Samothrace,
the oldest extant work being the Art of Grammar (
), attributed to Dionysius Thrax (ca. 100 BC). Latin
grammar developed by following Greek models from the 1st century
BC, due to the work of authors such as Orbilius Pupillus, Remmius
Palaemon, Marcus Valerius Probus, Verrius Flaccus, and Aemilius
Asper.
Tolkppiyam is the earliest Tamil grammar; it has been dated
variously between 1st CE and 10th CE.
A grammar of Irish originated in the 7th century with the
Auraicept na n-ces.
Arabic grammar emerged with Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali from the
7th century who in-turn was taught the discipline by Ali ibn Abi
talib, the fourth historical caliph of Islam and first Imam for Shi'i
Muslims.
The first treatis on Hebrew grammar appeared in the High
Middle Ages, in the context of Mishnah (exegesis of the Hebrew
Bible). The Karaite tradition originated in Abbasid Baghdad. The
Diqduq (10th century) is one of the earliest grammatical
commentaries on the Hebrew Bible.[8] Ibn Barun in the 12th century
compares the Hebrew language with Arabic in the Islamic
grammatical tradition.[9]
Belonging to the trivium of the ven liberal arts, grammar was
taugh冬天为什么不打雷
t as a core discipline throughout the Middle Ages, following
the influence of authors from Late Antiquity, such as Priscian.
Treatment of vernaculars began gradually during the High Middle
Ages, with isolated works such as the First Grammatical Treati,
but became influential only in the Renaissance and Baroque periods.
In 1486, Antonio de Nebrija published Las introduciones Latinas
contrapuesto el romance al Latin, and the first Spanish grammar,
Gramtica de la lengua castellana, in 1492. During the 16th century
Italian Renaissance, the Questione della lingua was the discussion on
the status and ideal form of the Italian language, initiated by Dante's
de vulgari eloquentia (Pietro Bembo, Pro della volgar lingua
Venice 1525). The first grammar of Slovene language was written in
1584 by Adam Bohori.
Grammars of non-European languages began to be compiled for
the purpos of evangelization and Bible translation from the 16th
century onward, such as Grammatica o Arte de la Lengua General de
los Indios de los Reynos del Per (1560), and a Quechua grammar
by Fray Domingo de Santo Toms.
In 1643 there appeared Ivan Uzhevych's Grammatica sclavonica
and, in 1762, the Short Introduction to English Grammar of Robert
Lowth was also published. The Grammatisch-Kritisches Wrterbuch
der hochdeutschen Mundart, a High German grammar in five
volumes by Johann Christoph Adelung, appeared as early as 1774.
From the latter part of the 18th century, grammar came to be
understood as a subfield of the emerging discipline of modern
linguistics. The Serbian grammar by Vuk Stefanovi Karadi
arrived in 1814, while the Deutsche Grammatik of the Brothers
Grimm was first published in 1818. The Comparative Grammar of
Franz Bopp, the starting point of modern comparative linguistics,
came out in 1833.
[edit] Development of grammarsMain article: Historical
linguistics
Grammars evolve through usage and also due to parations of
the human population. With the advent of written reprentations,
formal rules about language usage tend to appear also. Formal
grammars are codifications of usage that are developed by repeated
documentation over time, and by obrvation as well. As the rules
become established and developed, the prescriptive concept of
grammatical correctness can ari. This often creates a discrepancy
between contemporary usage and that which has been accepted, over
time, as being correct. Linguists tend to view prescriptive grammars
as having little justification beyond their authors' aesthetic tastes,
although style guides may give uful advice about standard
language employment, bad on descriptions of usage in
contemporary writings of the same language. Linguistic
prescriptions also form part of the explanation for variation in
speech, particularly variation in the speech of an individual speaker
(an explanation, for example, for why some people say, "I didn't do
nothing"; some say, "I didn't do anything"; and some say one or the
other depending on social context).
The formal study of grammar is an important part of education
for children from a young age through advanced learning, though the
rules taught in schools are not a "grammar" in the n most
linguists u the term, particularly as they are often prescriptive
rather than descriptive.
Constructed languages (also called planned languages or conlangs)
are more common in the modern day. Many have been designed to
aid human communication (for example, naturalistic Interlingua,
schematic Esperanto, and the highly logic-compatible artificial
language Lojban). Each of the languages has its own grammar.
Syntax refers to linguistic structure above the word level (e.g.
how ntences are formed)—though without taking into account
intonation, which is the domain of phonology. Morphology, by
contrast, refers to structure at and below the word level (e.g. how
compound words are formed), but above the level of individual
sounds, which, like intonation, are in the domain of phonology.[10]
No clear line can be drawn, however, between syntax and
morphology. Analytic languages u syntax to convey information
that is encoded via inflection in synthetic languages. In other words,
word order is not significant and morphology is highly significant in
a purely synthetic language, whereas morphology is not significant
and syntax is highly significant in an analytic language. Chine and
Afrikaans, for example, are highly analytic, and meaning is therefore
very context-dependent. (Both do have some inflections, and have
had more in the past; thus, they are becoming even less synthetic and
more "purely" analytic over time.) Latin, which is highly synthetic,
us affixes and inflections to convey the same information that
Chine does with syntax. Becau Latin words are quite (though
not completely) lf-contained, an intelligible Latin ntence can be
made from elements that are placed in a largely arbitrary order. Latin
has a complex affixation and simple syntax, while Chine has the
opposite.
[edit] Grammar frameworksMain article: Grammar framework
Various "grammar frameworks" have been developed in
theoretical linguistics since the mid 20th century, in particular under
the influence of the idea of a "universal grammar" in the United
States. Of the, the main divisions are:
Transformational grammar (TG)
Systemic functional grammar (SFG)
Principles and Parameters Theory (P&P)
Lexical-functional Grammar (LFG)
Generalized P会议方案范文
hra Structure Grammar (GPSG)
Head-Driven Phra Structure Grammar (HPSG)
Dependency grammars (DG)
Role and reference grammar (RRG)
[edit] EducationFurther information: orthography
Prescriptive grammar is taught in primary school (elementary
school). The term "grammar school" historically refers to a school
teaching Latin grammar to future Roman citizens, orators, and, later,
Catholic priests. In its earliest form, "grammar school" referred to a
school that taught students to read, scan, interpret, and declaim
Greek and Latin poets (including Homer, Virgil, Euripides, Ennius,
and others). The should not be confud with the related, albeit
distinct, modern British grammar schools.
A standard language is a particular dialect of a language that is
promoted above other dialects in writing, education, and broadly
speaking in the public sphere; it contrasts with vernacular dialects,
which may be the objects of study in descriptive grammar but which
are rarely taught prescriptively. The standardized "first language"
taught in primary education may be subject to political controversy,
since it establishes a standard defining nationality or ethnicity.
Recently, efforts have begun to update grammar instruction in
primary and condary education. The primary focus has been to
prevent the u of outdated prescriptive rules in favor of more
accurate descriptive ones and to change perceptions about relative
"correctness" of standard forms in comparison to non standard
dialects.
The pre-eminence of Parisian French has reigned largely
unchallenged throughout the history of modern French literature.
Standard Italian is not bad on the speech of the capital, Rome, but
on the speech of Florence becau of the influence Florentines had
on early Italian literature. Similarly, standard Spanish is not bad on
the speech of Madrid, but on the one of educated speakers from
more northerly areas like Castile and Len. In Argentina and
Uruguay the Spanish standard is bad on the local dialects of
Buenos Aires and Montevideo (Rioplaten Spanish). Portugue
has for now two official written standards, respectively Brazilian
Portugue and European Portugue, but in a short term it will have
a unified orthography.[11]
The Serbian language is divided in a similar way; Serbia and the
Republika Srpska u their own parate standards. The existence of
a third standard is a matter of controversy, some consider
Montenegrin as a parate language, and some think it's merely
another variety of Serbian.
Norwegian has two standards, Bokml and Nynorsk, the choice
between which is subject to controversy: Each Norwegian
municipality can declare one of the two its official language, or it
can remain "language neutral". Nynorsk is endord by a minority of
27 percent of the municipalities. The main language ud in primary
schools normally follows the official language of its municipality,
and is decided by referendum within the local school district.
Standard German emerged out of the standardized chancellery u of
High German in the 16th and 17th centuries. Until about 1800, it
was almost entirely a written language, but now it is so widely
spoken that most of the former German dialects are nearly extinct.
Standard Chine has official status as the standard spoken form
of the Chine language in the People's Republic of China (PRC),
the Republic of China (ROC) and the Republic of Singapore.
Pronunciation of Standard Chine is bad on the Beijing dialect of
Mandarin Chine, while grammar and syntax are bad on modern
vernacular written Chine. Modern Standard Arabic is directly
bad on Classical Arabic, the language of the Qur'an. The
Hindustani language has two standards, Hindi and Urdu.
In the United States, the Society for the Promotion of Good
Grammar designated March 4 as National Grammar Day in
2008.[12]
[edit] See alsoCategory:Grammars of specific languages
Ambiguous grammar
Government and binding
Harmonic Grammar
Higher order grammar
Grammeme
Linguistic typology
List of linguists
Paragrammatism
Syntax
Universal grammar
Usage
[edit] Notes and references1.^ Jeremy Butterfield, (2008) Damp
Squid: The English Language Laid Bare, Oxford University Press,
Oxford. 978-0-19-923906. p. 142.
2.^ Traditionally, the mental information ud to produce and
process linguistic utterances is referred to as "rules." However, other
frameworks employ different terminology, with theoretical
implications. Optimality theory, for example, talks in terms of
"constraints", while Construction grammar, Cognitive grammar, and
other "usage-bad" theories make reference to patterns,
constructions, and "schemata"
3.^ O'Grady, William; Dobrovolsky, Michael; Katamba, Francis
(1996). Contemporary Linguistics: An Introduction. Harlow, Esx:
Longman. pp. 4–7; 464–539.
/books?id=djhsAAAAIAAJ&q=Contempo
rary+Linguistics&dq=Contemporary+Linguistics.
4.^ Holmes, Janet (2001). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics
(cond ed.). Harlow, Esx: Longman. pp. 73–94.
/books?id=qjdqxecifHcC&printc=frontco
ver&dq=Introduction+to+Sociolinguistics+Holmes. ; for more
discussion of ts of grammars as populations, e: Croft, William
(2000). Explaining Language Change: An Evolutionary Approach.
Harlow, Esx: Longman. pp. 13–20.
/books?id=5_Ka7zLl9HQC&printc=fron
tcover&dq=Explaining+Language+Change+Croft.
5.^ Rodney Huddleston and Geoffrey K. Pullum, 2002, The
Cambrid四海一线
ge Grammar of the English Language. Cambridge (UK):
Cambridge University Press, p. 627f.
6.^ Lundin, Leigh (2007-09-23). "The Power of Prepositions". On
Writing. Cairo: Crimi医生的简笔画
nal Brief. /?p=216.
7.^ Harper, Douglas, "Grammar", Online Etymological
Dictionary, /?term=grammar,
retrieved 8 April 2010
8.^ G. Khan, J. B. Noah, The Early Karaite Tradition of Hebrew
Grammatical Thought (2000)
9.^ Pinchas Wechter, Ibn Barn's Arabic Works on Hebrew
Grammar and Lexicography (1964)
10.^ Gusnhoven, Carlos; Jacobs, Haike (2005). Understanding
Phonology (cond ed.). London: Hodder Arnoldd.
/books?id=gHp_QgAACAAJ&dq=Underst
anding+Phonology&cd=1.
11.^ [1]
12.^ National Grammar Day
American Academic Press, The (ed.). William Strunk, Jr., et al.
The Classics of Style: The Fundamentals of Language Style From
Our American Craftsmen. Cleveland: The American Academic Press,
2006. ISBN 0-9787282-0-3.
Rundle, Bede. Grammar in Philosophy. Oxford: Clarendon Press;
New York: Oxford University Press, 1979. ISBN 0-19-824612-9.
[edit] External links Look up grammar in Wiktionary, the free
dictionary.
Archibald Henry Sayce (1911). "Grammar". In Chisholm, Hugh.
Encyclopdia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
GrammarBank : Grammar rules explanations with examples and
exercis online
The syntax of natural language: An online introduction using the
Trees program -- Beatrice Santorini & Anthony Kroch, University of
Pennsylvania, 2007
The Grammar Vandal (Funny, informative blog that fixes bad
grammar.)
The "Blog" of "Unneces鱼粥
sary" Quotes (Another educational, still
funny poke at people who incorrectly u quote marks.)
