英语语言学

Chapter1Language语言

feature(识别特征)referstothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromany

animalsystemofcommunication.

tivity(能产性)referstotheabilitythatpeoplehaveinmakingandcomprehendingindefinitelylarge

quantitiesofntencesintheirnativelanguage.

ariness(任意性)Arbitrarinessreferstothephenomenonthatthereisnomotivatedrelationship

betweenalinguisticformanditsmeaning.

(符号)Symbolreferstosomethingsuchasanobject,word,orsoundthatreprentssomething

elbyassociationorconvention.

teness(离散性)Discretenessreferstothephenomenonthatthesoundsinalanguageare

meaningfullydistinct.

cement(不受时空限制的特性)Displacementreferstothefactthathumanlanguagecanbeudto

talkaboutthingsthatarenotintheimmediatesituationsofitsurs.

yofstructure(结构二重性)Theorganizationoflanguageintotwolevels,oneofsounds,theotherof

meaning,isknownasdualityofstructure.

etransmission(文化传播)Culturetransmissionreferstothefactthatlanguageispasdonfrom

onegenerationtothenextthroughteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyinheritance.

hangeability(互换性)Interchangeabilitymeansthatanyhumanbeingcanbebothaproduceranda

receiverofmessages.

1.★Whatislanguage?

Lafinitionhascaptured

,languageisasystem.

Second,languageisarbitraryinthen.

Thethirdfeatureoflanguageissymbolicnature.

2.★Whatarethedesignfeaturesoflanguage?

Languagehasvendesignfeaturesasfollowing:

1)Productivity.

2)Discreteness.

3)Displacement4)Arbitrariness.

5)Culturaltransmission

6)Dualityofstructure.

7)Interchangeability.

esaylanguageisasystem?

Becauelementsoflanguagearecombinedaccordingtorules,andeverylanguagecontainsatofrules.

Bysystem,therecurringpatternsorarrangementsortheparticularwaysordesignsinwhichalanguage

sounds,thewordsandthentencesareudinfixedpatternsthatspeakerofalanguage

canunderstandeachother.

4.★(Functionoflanguage.)AccordingtoHalliday,whataretheinitialfunctionsofchildren’s

language?Andwhatarethethreefunctionalcomponentsofadultlanguage?

ayusthefollowingtermstorefertotheinitialfunctionsofchildren’slanguage:

1)Instrumentalfunction.工具功能

2)Regulatoryfunction.调节功能

3)Reprentationalfunction.表现功能

4)Interactionalfunction.互动功能

5)Personalfunction.自指性功能

6)Heuristicfunction.启发功能[osbQtq`kf`h]

7)Imaginativefunction.想象功能

anguagehasthreefunctionalcomponentsasfollowing:

1)Interpersonalcomponents.人际

2)Ideationalcomponents.概念

3)Textualcomponents.语篇

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llinguisticsanddescriptivelinguistics(普通语言学与描写语言学)Theformerdealswithlanguage

ingeneralwhereasthelatterisconcernedwithoneparticularlanguage.

oniclinguisticsanddiachroniclinguistics(共时语言学与历时语言学)Diachroniclinguisticstraces

thehistoricaldevelopmentofthelanguageandrecordsthechangesthathavetakenplaceinitbetween

chroniclinguisticsprentsanaccountoflanguageasitisatsome

particularpointintime.

ticallinguisticsandappliedlinguistics(理论语言学与应用语言学)Theformercopeswith

languageswithaviewtoestablishingatheoryoftheirstructuresandfunctionswhereasthelatterisconcernedwiththeapplicationoftheconceptsandfindingsoflinguisticstoallsortsofpracticaltasks.

inguisticsandmacrolinguistics(微观语言学与宏观语言学)Theformerstudiesonlythestructureof

languagesystemwhereasthelatterdealswitheverythingthatisrelatedtolanguages.

andparole(语言与言语)Theformerreferstotheabstractlinguisticssystemsharedbyallthe

membersofaspeechcommunitywhereasthelatterreferstotheconcreteactofspeakinginactualsituationbyanindividualspeaker.

enceandperformance(语言能力与语言运用)Theformerisone’sknowledgeofallthelinguistic

regulationsystemswhereasthelatteristheuoflanguageinconcretesituation.

andwriting(口头语与书面语)Speechisthespokenformoflanguagewhereaswritingiswritten

codes,giveslanguagenewscope.

sticsbehaviorpotentialandactuallinguisticbehavior(语言行为潜势与实际主动英语 语言行为)People

actuallysahofpossiblelinguisticitemsthathecouldhavesaidislinguisticbehaviorpotential.

maticrelationandparadigmaticrelation(横组合关系与纵聚合关系)Theformerdescribesthe

horizontaldimensionofalanguagewhilethelatterdescribestheverticaldimensionofalanguage.

communicationandnon-verbalcommunication(言语交际与非言语交际)Usualuoflanguageas

sweconveymeaningwithout

usinglanguageiscallednon-verbalcommunication.

1.★HowdoesJohnLyonsclassifylinguistics?

AccordingtoJohnLyons,thefieldoflinguisticsasawholecanbedividedintoveralsubfieldsasfollowing:

1)Generallinguisticsanddescriptivelinguistics.

2)Synchroniclinguisticsanddiachroniclinguistics.

3)Theoreticallinguisticsandappliedlinguistics.

4)Microlinguisticsandmacrolinguistics.

nthethreeprinciplesbywhichthelinguistisguided:consistency,adequacyandsimplicity.

1)Consistencymeansthatthereshouldbenocontradictionsbetweendifferentpartsofthetheoryandthedescription.

2)Adequacymeansthatthetheorymustbebroadenoughinscopetooffersignificantgeneralizations.

3)Simplicityrequiresustobeasbriefandeconomicaspossible.

3.★Whatarethesub-branchesoflinguisticswithinthelanguagesystem?

Withinthelanguagesystemtherearesixsub-branchesasfollowing:

1)Phonetics.语音学isastudyofspeechsoundsofallhumanlanguages.

2)Phonology.音位学studiesaboutthesoundsandsoundpatternsofaspeaker’snativelanguage.

3)Morphology.形态学studiesabouthowawordisformed.

4)Syntax.句法学studiesaboutwhetherantenceisgrammaticalornot.

5)Semantics.语义学studiesaboutthemeaningoflanguage,includingmeaningofwordsandmeaningofntences.

6)Pragmatics.语用学

★Thescopeoflanguage:Linguisticsisreferredtoasascientificstudyoflanguage.

★Thescientificprocessoflinguisticstudy:Itinvolvesfourstages:collectingdata,formingahypothesis,

testingthehypothesisanddrawingconclusions.

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Chapter2Linguistics语言学

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latoryphonetics(发音语音学)Thestudyofhowspeechorgansproducethesoundsiscalled

articulatoryphonetics.

icphonetics(声学语音学)Thestudyofthephysicalpropertiesandofthetransmissionofspeech

soundsiscalledacousticphonetics.

ryphonetics(听觉语音学)Thestudyofthewayhearersperceivespeechsoundsiscalledauditory

phonetics.

ant(辅音)Consonantisaspeechsoundwheretheairformthelanguageiithercompletelyblocked,

orpartiallyblocked,orwheretheopeningbetweenthespeechorgansissonarrowthattheairescapeswithaudiblefriction.

(元音)isdefinedasaspeechsoundinwhichtheairfromthelungsisnotblockedinanywayandis

pronouncedwithvocal-cordvibration.

als(双唇音)Bilabialsmeansthatconsonantsforwhichtheflowofairisstoppedorrestrictedbythetwo

lips.[p]

[b][m][w]

ates(塞擦音)Thesoundproducedbystoppingtheairstreamandthenimmediatelyreleasingitslowlyis

calledaffricates.[t

X

][d

Y][tr][dr]

s(声门)Glottisisthespacebetweenthevocalcords.

dvowel(圆唇元音)Roundedvowelisdefinedasthevowelsoundpronouncedbythelipsforminga

circularopening.[u:][u][

OB

][

O]

ongs(双元音)Diphthongsareproducedbymovingfromonevowelpositiontoanotherthrough

interveningpositions.[ei][ai][

O

i][

Qu][au]

hongs(三合元音)Triphthongsarethowhichareproducedbymovingfromonevowelpositionto

anotherandthenrapidlyandcontinuouslytoathirdone.[ei

Q

][ai

Q

][

O

i

Q

][

Q

u

Q

][au

Q]

els(松元音)Accordingtodistinctionoflongandshortvowels,vowelsareclassifiedtenvowelsand

longvowelsaretenvowelsbutoftheshortvowels,[e]isatenvowelaswell,andthe

restshortvowelsarelaxvowels.

1.★Howareconsonantsclassifiedintermsofdifferentcriteria?

TheconsonantsinEnglishcanbedescribedintermsoffourdimensions.

1)Thepositionofthesoftpalate.

2)Theprenceortheabnceofvocal-cordvibration.

3)Theplaceofarticulation.

4)Themannerofarticulation.

2.★Howarevowelsclassifiedintermsofdifferentcriteria?

Vowelsoundsaredifferentiatedbyanumberoffactors.

1)Thestateofthevelum

2)Thepositionofthetongue.

3)Theopennessofthemouth.

4)Theshapeofthelips.

5)Thelengthofthevowels.

6)Thetensionofthemusclesatpharynx.

3.★Whatarethethreesub-branchesofphonetics?Howdotheydifferfromeachother?

Phoneticshasthreesub-branchesasfollowing:

1)Articulatoryphoneticsisthestudyofhowspeechorgansproducethesoundsiscalledarticulatory

phonetics.

2)Acousticphoneticsisthestudyofthephysicalpropertiesandofthetransmissionofspeechsoundsis

calledacousticphonetics.

3)Auditoryphoneticsisthestudyofthewayhearersperceivespeechsoundsiscalledauditory

phonetics.

4.★Whatarethecommonlyudphoneticfeaturesforconsonantsandvowelsrespectively?

quentlyudphoneticfeaturesforconsonantsincludethefollowing:

1)Voiced.

2)Nasal.

3)Consonantal.

4)Vocalic.

5)Continuant.

6)Anterior.

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Chapter3Phonetics语音学

7)Coronal.

8)Aspirated.

tcommonphoneticfeaturesforvowelsincludethefollowing:

1)High.

2)Low.

3)Front.

4)Back.

5)Rounded.

6)Ten.

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1.

2.

3.

4.5.

Chapter4Phonology音位学

phonemes(音位)Phonemesareminimaldistinctiveunitsinthesoundsystemofalanguage.

allophones(音位变体)Allophonesarethephoneticvariantsandrealizationsofaparticularphoneme.

phones(单音)Thesmallestidentifiablephoneticunitfoundinastreamofspeechiscalledaphone.

minimalpair(最小对立体)Minimalpairmeanswordswhichdifferfromeachotheronlybyonesound.

contrastivedistribution(对比分布)Iftwoormoresoundscanoccurinthesameenvironmentandthe

substitutionofonesoundforanotherbringsaboutachangeofmeaning,theyaresaidtobeincontrastivedistribution.

mentarydistribution(互补分布)Iftwoormoresoundsneverappearinthesameenvironment,then

theyaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.

riation(自由变异)Whentwosoundscanappearinthesameenvironmentandthesubstitutionofone

fortheotherdoesnotcauanychangeinmeaning,thentheyaresaidtobeinfreevariation.

ctivefeatures(区别性特征)Adistinctivefeatureisafeaturewhichdistinguishesonephonemefrom

another.

egmentalfeatures(超切分特征)Thedistinctive(phonological)featureswhichapplytogroupslarger

thanthesinglegmentareknownassupragmentalfeatures.

nguages(声调语言)Tonelanguagesarethowhichupitchtocontrastmeaningatwordlevel.

tionlanguages(语调语言)Intonationlanguagesarethowhichupitchtodistinguishmeaningat

phralevelorntencelevel.

re(连音)Juncturereferstothephoneticboundaryfeatureswhichmaydemarcategrammaticalunits.

1.★WhatarethedifferencesbetweenEnglishphoneticsandEnglishphonology?

1)Phoneticsisthestudyoftheproduction,perception,andphysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,while

phonologyattemptstoaccountforhowtheyarecombined,organized,andconveymeaninginparticularlanguages.

2)Phoneticsisthestudyoftheactualsoundswhilephonologyisconcernedwithamoreabstract

descriptionofspeechsoundsandtriestodescribetheregularitiesofsoundpatterns.

amplestoillustratetherelationshipbetweenphonemes,phonesandallophones.

Whenwehear[pit],[tip],[spit],etc,thesimilarphoneswehaveheardare/p/.And/p/and/b/areparate

phonemesinEnglish,while[ph]and[p]areallophones.

wedecideaminimalpairoraminimalt?

Aminimalpairshouldmeetthreeconditions:

1)Thetwoformsaredifferentinmeaning.

2)Thetwoformsaredifferentinonesoundgment.

3)Thedifferentsoundsoccurinthesamepositionofthetwostrings.

4.★Uexamplestoexplainthethreetypesofdistribution.

1)[m]inmetand[n]innetareincontrastivedistributionbecau

substituting[m]for[n]willresultinachangeofmeaning.

2)iratedplosive[ph]andtheunaspiratedplosive[p]arein

complementarydistributionbecautheformeroccuritherinitiallyinawordorinitiallyinastresdsyllablewhilethelattern水中瑜伽 everoccursinsuchenvironments.

3)ish,theword“direct”maybepronounceintwoways:/di’rekt/and/dia’rekt/,and

thetwodifferentsounds/i/and/ai/canbesaidtobeinfreevariation.

’sthedifferencebetweengmentalfeaturesandsupragmentalfeatures?Whatarethe

supragmentalfeaturesinEnglish?

I.1)Distinctivefeatures,whichareudtodistinguishonephonemefromanotherandthushaveeffecton

onesoundgment,arereferredtoasgmentalfeatures.

2)Thedistinctive(phonological)featureswhichapplytogroupslargerthanthesinglegmentareknownassupragmentalfeatures.

3)yapplytoastringofveralsounds.

nsupragmentalfeaturesincludestress,tone,intonationandjuncture.

’sthedifferencebetweentonelanguagesandintonationlanguage?

Tonelanguagesarethowhichupitchtocontrastmeaningatwordlevelwhileintonationlanguagesare

thowhichupitchtodistinguishmeaningatphralevelorntencelevel

7.★What’sthedifferencebetweenphonetictranscriptionsandphonemictranscriptions?

Theformerwasmeanttosymbolizeallpossiblespeechsounds,includingeventhemostminuteshadesofpronunciation,whilethelatterwasintendedtoindicateonlythosoundscapableofdistinguishingoneword

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fromanotherinagivenlanguage.

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mes(语素)Morphemesaretheminimalmeaningfulunitsinthegrammaticalsystemofalanguage.

allomorphs(语素变体)Allomorphsaretherealizationsofaparticularmorpheme.

morphs(形素)Morphsaretherealizationsofmorphemesingeneralandaretheactualformsudtorealizemorphemes.

(词根)Rootsisdefinedasthemostimportantpartofawordthatcarriestheprincipalmeaning.

affixes(词缀)Affixesaremorphemesthatlexicallydependonrootsanddonotconveythefundamentalmeaningofwords.

freemorphemes(自由语素)Freemorpheme清廉的意思 sarethowhichcanexistasindividualwords.

boundmorphemes(粘着语素)Boundmorphemesarethowhichcannotoccurontheirownasparatewords.

tionalaffixes(屈折词缀)refertoaffixesthatrvetoindicategrammaticalrelations,butdonot

changeitspartofspeech.

derivationalaffixes(派生词缀)refertoaffixesthatareaddedtowordsinordertochangeitsgrammaticalcategoryoritsmeaning.

orph(空语子)Emptymorphmeansamorphwhichhasformbutnomeaning.

zeromorph(零语子)Zeromorphreferstoamorphwhichhasmeaningbutnoform.

ysis(直接成分分析)ICanalysisistheanalysistoanalyzealinguisticexpression(bothawordanda

ntence)intoahierarchicallydefinedriesofconstituents.

ateconstituents(直接成分)Aimmediateconstituentisanyoneofthelargestgrammaticalunitsthat

ateconstituentsareoftenfurtherreducible.

ultimateconstituents(最后成分)Ultimateconstituentsarethogrammaticallyirreducibleunitsthatconstituteconstructions.

logicalrules(形态学规则)Theprinciplesthatdeterminehowmorphemesarecombinedintonew

wordsaresaidtobemorphologicalrules.

-formationprocess(构词法)Word-formationprocessmeantherule-governedprocessofforming

newwordsonthebasisofalreadyexistinglinguisticresources.

1.★WhatisICAnalysis?

ICanalysisistheanalysistoanalyzealinguisticexpression(bothawordandantence)intoahierarchicallydefinedriesofconstituents.

morphemesclassified?

1)Semanticallyspeaking,morphemesaregroupedintotwocategories:rootmorphemesandaffixa十大横财手相 tional

morphemes.

2)Structurallyspeaking,theyaredividedintotwotypes:freemorphemesandboundmorphemes.

3.★Explaintheinterrelationsbetweenmanticandstructuralclassificationsofmorphemes.

a)Allfreemorphemesarerootsbutnotallrootsarefreemorphemes.

b)Allaffixesareboundmorphemes,butnotallboundmorphemesareaffixes.

’sthedifferencebetweenanemptymorphandazeromorph?

a)Emptymorphmeansamorphthathasformbutnomeaning.

b)Zeromorphreferstoamorphthathasmeaningbutnoform.

nthedifferencesbetweeninflectionalandderivationalaffixesintermofbothfunctionand

position.

a)Functionally:

tionalaffixesvertomarkgrammaticalrelationsandnevercreatenewwordswhilederivationalaffixescancreatenewwords.

tionalaffixesdonotcauachangeingrammatica终极三国歌曲 lclasswhilederivationalaffixesveryoftenbut

notalwayscauachangeingrammaticalclass.

b)Intermofposition:

tionalaffixesaresuffixeswhilederivationalaffixescanbesuffixesorprefixes.

ivationalaffixesarealwaysbeforeinflectionalsuffixesifbothareprent.

emorphologicalrules?Giveatleastfourruleswithexamples.

Theprinciplesthatdeterminehowmorphemesarecombinedintonewwordsaresaidtobemorphologicalrules.

Forexample:

a)un-+adj.->adj.

b)Adj./n.+-ify->v.

c)V.+-able->adj.

d)Adj.+-ly->adv.

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Chapter5Morphology形态学

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Chapter6Syntax句法学

maticrelations(横组关系)refertotherelationshipsbetweenconstituentsinaconstruction.

paradigmaticrelations(纵聚合关系)refertotherelationsbetweenthelinguisticelementswithinantenceandthooutsidethentence.

hierarchicalrelations(等级关系)refertorelationshipsbetweenanyclassificationoflinguisticunitswhichrecognizesariesofsuccessivelysubordinatelevels.

ysis(直接成分分析)isakindofgrammaticalanalysis,whichmakemajordivisionsatanylevelwithin

asyntacticconstruction.

labeledICAnalysis(标记法直接成分分析)isakindofgrammaticalanalysis,whichmakemajordivisionsat

anylevelwithinasyntacticconstructionandlabeleachconstituent.

phramarkers(短语标记法)isakindofgrammaticalanalysis,whichmakemajordivisionsatanylevel

withinasyntacticconstruction,andlabeleachconstituentwhileremoveallthelinguisticforms.

labeledbracketing(方括号标记法)isakindofgrammaticalanalysis,whichisappliedinreprentingthe

hierarchicalstructureofntencesbyusingbrackets.

tuency(成分关系护士个人简历 )

dependency(依存关系)

estructures(表层结构)

referstothementalreprentationofalinguisticexpression,derivedfrom

deepstructurebytransformationalrules.

deepstructures(深层结构)deepstructureofalinguisticexpressionisatheoreticalconstructthatekstounifyveralrelatedstructures.

structurerules(短语结构规则)

areawaytodescribeagivenlanguage'eudto

breakanaturallanguagentencedownintoitsconstituentparts.

ormationalrules(转换规则)

uralambiguity(结构歧义)

ethedifferencesbetweensurfacestructureanddeepstructure?

Theyaredifferentfromeachotherinfouraspects:

1)Surfacestructurescorresponddirectlytothelineararrangementsofntenceswhiledeepstructurescorrespondtothemeaningfulgroupingofntences.

2)Surfacestructuresaremoreconcretewhiledeepstructuresaremoreabstract.

3)Surfacestructuresgivetheformsofntenceswhereasdeepstructuresgivethemeaningsofntences.

4)Surfacestructuresarepronounceablebutdeepstructuresarenot.

ratethedifferencesbetweenPSrulesandT-rules.

1)PSrulesfrequentlyappliedingeneratingdeepstructures.

2)T-rulesareudtotransformdeepstructureintosurfacestructures.

’stheorderofgeneratingntences?Dowestartwithsurfacestructuresorwithdeep

structures?Howdifferentlyaretheygenerated?

Togenerateantence,wealwaysstartwithitsdeepstructure,andthentransformitintoitscorresponding

surfacestructure.

Deepstructuresaregeneratedbyphrastructurerules(PSrules)whilesurfacestructuresarederivedfrom

theirdeepstructuresbytransformationalrules(T-rules).

’sthedifferencebetweenacompulsoryconstituentandanoptionalone?

Optionalconstituentsmaybeprentorabntwhilecompulsoryconstituentsmustbeprent.

ethethreesyntacticrelations?Illustratethemwithexamples.

1)Syntagmaticrelations

2)Paradigmaticrelations.

3)Hierarchicalrelations.

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1.

2.

3.

4.5.

Chapter7Semantics

语义学

Lexicalmantics(词汇语义学)isdefinedasthestudyofwordmeaninginlanguage.

Sen(意义)referstotheinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.

Reference(所指)meanswhatalinguisticformreferstointherealworld.

Concept(概念)istheresultofhumancognition,reflectingtheobjectiveworldinthehumanmind.

Denotation(外延)isdefinedastheconstant,abstract,andbasicmeaningofalinguisticexpressionindependentofcontextandsituation.

ation(内涵)referstotheemotionalassociationswhicharesuggestedby,orarepartofthemeaning

of,alinguisticunit.

entialanalysis(成分分析法)isthewaytodecompothemeaningofawordintoitscomponents.

icfield(语义场)Thevocabularyofalanguageisnotsimplyalistingofindependentitems,butis

organizedintoareas,asaremanticfields.

my(上下义关系)referstothenrelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordanda

morespecificword.

my(同义关系)referstothesamenessorclosimilarityofmeaning.

my(反义关系)referstotheoppositenessofmeaning.

lambiguity(词汇歧义)

my(多义性)referstothefactthatthesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.

my(同音(同形)异义关系)referstothephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethe

sameform.

cemantics(句子语义学)referstothestudyofntencemeaninginlanguage.

’sthecriterionofJohnLyonsinclassifyi浙江工业大学专业 ngmanticsintoitssub-branches?Andhowdoeshe

classifymantics?

Intermsofwhetheritfallswithinthescopeoflinguistics,JohnLyonsdistinguishesbetweenlinguisticmanticsandnon-linguisticmantics.

AccordingJohnLyons,manticsisoneofthesub-branchesoflinguistics;itisgenerallydefinedasthestudy

ofmeaning.

etheesntialfactorsfordeterminingntencemeaning?

1)Object,2)concept,3)symbol,4)ur,5)context.

thedifferencebetweenthetheoryofcomponentialanalysisandthetheoryofmantictheory

indefiningmeaningofwords?

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