英语语言学复习专题
A Review on English Linguistics
Tiger Zhou
School of Foreign Languages,Shanghai Dianji University
一.Explain the following terms
1.duality
Duality refers to the fact that language is a system,which consists of two ts of structures,or two levels.At the lower level,there is a structure of sounds,which are meaningless by themlves. At the higher level,there is a structure of meanings where the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning.
When two or more than two allophones of the same phoneme do not distinguish meaning and occur in different phonetic environments,then the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution.
3.category
Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same of familiar functions in a particular language such as ntence,a noun phra or a verb.
4.phra structure rule
A certain word can only co-occur with certain other words.There must be certain grammatical mechanism that ensures the appropriate positions that specifiers,heads and complements occupy in phra structure.Such special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phra is called a phra structure rule.
橡皮的英语怎么说5.homonymy
Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same different words are identical in sound or spelling,or in both.
6.displacement
Displacement means that language can be ud to refer to things which are prent or not prent,r
eal or imagined matters in the past,prent,or future,or in far away places.In other words,language can be ud to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.This property provides speakers with an opportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caud by paration in time or place.
7.minimal pairs
When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound gment which occurs in the same place in the strings,the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair.
8.deep structure
It is the structure that is formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s sub-categorization properties and that corresponds most cloly to the meaningful grouping of words.
It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.
10.hyponymy
Hyponymy refers to the n relation between a more general,more inclusive word and a more specific word.(The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate,and the more specific words are called its hyponyms.)
二.Short Answers
Chapter1Introduction
2.What are the major branches of linguistics?What does each of them study?
The major branches of linguistics are:
(1)phonetics:it studies the sounds ud in linguistic communication;
(2)phonology:it studies how sounds are put together and ud to convey meaning in communication;
(3)morphology:it studies the way in which linguistic symbols reprenting sounds are arranged and combined to form words;
(4)syntax:it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible ntences in languages;
(5)mantics:it studies meaning conveyed by language;
(6)pragmatics:it studies the meaning in the context of language u.
3.In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?关于网络安全
The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as“traditional grammar.”Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in veral basic ways.
Firstly,modem linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.
Second,modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary,not the written.Traditional grammarians,on the other hand,tended to emphasize,maybe over-emphasize,the importance of the written word,partly becau of its permanence.
from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages
4.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic?Why?
In modem linguistics,a synchronic approach ems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Becau people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied,it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.
6.How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?
Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar,they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions,and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.
8.What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C.Hockett to show that it is esntially different from animal communication system?
The main features of human language are termed design features.They include:
a)Arbitrariness
Language is arbitrary.This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.A good example is the fact that different sounds are ud to refer to the same object in different languages.芭比娃娃怎么做
b)Productivity
Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its urs.This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of ntences,including ntences they have never heard before.
c)Duality
Language consists of two ts of structures,or two levels.At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds,which are meaningless by themlves.But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning,which are found at the higher level of the system.
d)Displacement
Language can be ud to refer to things which are prent or not prent,real or imagined matters in
the past,prent,or future,or in far-away places.In other words,language can be ud to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.This is what “displacement”means.
e)Cultural transmission
While human capacity能力for language has a genetic ,we were all born with the ability to acquire language,the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted,but instead have to be taught and learned.
Chapter2Phonology
2.What is voicing and how is it caud?
Voicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. It is caud by the vibration of the vocal cords.
3.Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ?
The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription.This is the transcription normally ud in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purpos.The he transcript
ion with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription.This is the transcription needed and ud by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds.With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully reprent as much of the fine
details as it is necessary for their purpo.
The example is the consonant[p].We all know that[p]is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit.In the word pit,the sound[p]is pronounced with a strong puff of air,but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent.In the ca of pit,the[p]sound is said to be aspirated and in the ca of spit,the[p]sound is unaspirated.This difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transcription,a small raid“h”is ud to show aspiration,thus pit is transcribed as [pʰit]and spit is transcribed as[spit].
3.What criteria are ud to classify the English vowels?
Vowels may be distinguished as front,central,and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest.To further distinguish members of each group,we need to apply another the openness of the mouth.Accordingly,we classify the vowels into four groups:clo vowels, mi-clo vowels,mi-open vowels,and open vowels.A third criterion that is often ud in the classification of v
owels is the shape of the lips.In English,all the front vowels and the central vowels are unrounded ,without rounding the lips,and all the back vowels,with the exception of[a:],are rounded.Then the English vowels can also be classified according to the length of the sound.The long vowels are all ten vowels and the short vowels are lax vowels.
4. A.Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:
1)voiced palatal affricate[ʤ]
2)voiceless labiodental fricative[f]
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3)voiced alveolar stop[d]
4)front,clo,short[ɪ]
5)back,mi-open,long[ɔ:]
6)voiceless bilabial stop[p]
B.Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:
1)[d]voiceless alveolar stop
2)[l]voiced alveolar liquid
3)[ʧ]voiceless palatal affricate
4)[w]voiced bilabial glide
5)[ʊ]back,clo,(rounded)short
6)[æ]front,open,(unrounded)short
9.Explain with examples the quential rule,the assimilation rule,and the deletion rule.
Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called quential rules.There are many such quential rules in English.For example,if a word begins with a[l]or a [r],then the next sound must be a vowel.That is why[lbik][lkbi]are impossible combinations in English.They have violated the restrictions on the quencing of phonemes.
The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by“copying”a feature of a quential phonem
e,thus making the two phones similar.Assimilation of neighboring sounds is, for the most part,caud by articulatory or physiological process.When we speak,we tend to increa the ea of articulation.This“sloppy慵懒的；马虎的”tendency may become regularized as rules of language.
Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically reprented.Wehave noticed that in the pronunciation of such words as sign,design,and paradigm,there is no[g]sound although it is reprented in spelling by the letter g.But in their corresponding forms signature,designation,and paradigmatic,the[g]reprented by the letter g is pronounced.The rule can be stated as:Delete a[g]when it occurs before a final nasal consonant.Given the rule,the phonemic reprentation of the stems in sign–signature,resign–resignation,paradigm–paradigmatic will include the phoneme/g/,which will be deleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.
10.What are supragmental features?How do the major supragmental features of English function in conveying meaning?
The phonemic features that occur above the level of the gments are called supragmental features.The main supragmental features include stress,intonation,and tone.
The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.There are two kinds of stress:word stress and ntence stress.For example,a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun,to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged.Tones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language,especially in a language like English.When spoken in different tones,the same quence of words may have different meanings.
Chapter3Morphology
1.Divide the following words into their parate morphemes by placing a“+”between each morpheme and the next:
a.micro+film
b.be+draggle+ed
c.announce+ment
d.pre+digest+ion
f.fore+father
g.psycho+han+ist
6.The following ntences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes.Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle(blacken)the inflectional affixes.
a)The farmer’s cow s escap ed.
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b)It was rain ing.
c)Tho sock s are inexpensive.
d)Jim need s the new er copy.
e)The strong est rower continu ed.
f)She quickly clos ed the book.
g)The alphabetization went well.
Chapter4Syntax
1.What is syntax?
Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form ntences and the rules that govern the formation of ntences.
2.What is phra structure rule?
The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of specifiers,heads, and complements)that make up a phra is called a phra structure rule.
The phra structural rule for NP,VP,AP,and PP can be written as follows:
NP→(Det)N(PP)...
VP→(Qual)V(NP)...
AP→(Deg)A(PP)...
PP→(Deg)P(NP)...
The general phrasal structural rule(X stands for the head N,V,A or P):
The XP rule:XP→(specifier)X(complement)
3.What is category?How to determine a word’s category?
Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a ntence,a noun phra or a verb.
To determine a word’s category,three criteria are usually employed,namely meaning, inflection and distribution.A word’s distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.
4.What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?
The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.
Coordinate structures exhibits four important properties:
a)There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the
conjunction.
b)A category at any level(a head or an entire XP)can becoordinated.
c)Coordinated categories must be of the same type.
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d)The category type of the coordinate phra is identical to the category type of the
elements being conjoined.
见财起意6.What is deep structure and what is surface structure?
There are two levels of syntactic structure.The first,formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s sub-categorization properties,is called deep structure(or D-structure).The cond, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the ntence which results from appropriate transformations,is called surface structure(or S-structure).简单的小故事
