Thin Layer Chromatography.
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Thin layer chromatography, or TLC, is a method for analyzing mixtures by parating the compounds in the mixture. TLC can be ud to help determine the number of components in a mixture, the identity of compounds, and the purity of a compound. By obrving the appearance of a product or the disappearance of a reactant, it can also be ud to monitor the progress of a reaction. TLC is a nsitive technique - microgram (0.000001 g) quantities can be analyzed by TLC - and it takes little time for an analysis (about 5-10 minutes).
TLC consists of three steps - spotting, development, and visualization. Photographs of each step are shown on the cour website. First the sample to be analyzed is dissolved in a volatile (easily evaporated) solvent to produce a very dilute (about 1%) solution. Spotting consists of using a micro pipet to transfer a small amount of this dilute solution to one end of a TLC plate, in this ca a thin layer of powdered silica gel that has been coated onto a plastic sheet. The spotting solvent quickly evaporates and leaves behind a small spot of the material.
小猫踩奶Development consists of placing the bottom of the TLC plate into a shallow pool of a development solvent, which then travels up the plate by capillary action. As the solvent travels up the plate, it moves
over the original spot. A competition is t up between the silica gel plate and the development solvent for the spotted material. The very polar silica gel tries to hold the spot in its original place and the solvent tries to move the spot along with it as it travels up the plate. The outcome depends upon a balance among three polarities - that of the plate, the development solvent and the spot material. If the development solvent is polar enough, the spot will move some distance from its original location. Different components in the original spot, having different polarities, will move different distances from the original spot location and show up as parate spots. When the solvent has traveled almost to the top of the plate, the plate is removed, the solvent front marked with a pencil, and the solvent allowed to evaporate.
Visualization of colored compounds is simple – the spots can be directly obrved after development. Becau most compounds are colorless however, a visualization method is needed. The silica gel on the TLC plate is impregnated with a fluorescent material that glows under ultraviolet (UV) light. A spot will interfere with the fluorescence and appear as a dark spot on a glowing background. While under the UV light, the spots can be outlined with a pencil to mark their locations. A cond method of visualization is accomplished by placing the plate into iodine vapors for a few minutes. Most organic compounds will form a dark-colored complex with iodine. It is good practice to
u at least two visualization techniques in ca a compound does not show up with one particular method.
08奥运会The Rf value is ud to quantify the movement of the materials along the plate. Rf is equal to the distance traveled by the substance divided by the distance traveled by the solvent. Its value is always between zero and one. A TLC analysis might be summarized something like, "Using a silica gel plate and ethyl acetate as the development solvent, unknown mixture X showed three spots having Rf's of 0.12, 0.25, and 0.87". Comparing the Rf's with the Rf's of known compounds might enable a tentative identification to be made. Note that obrving three spots means only that there are at least three components in the mixture. Some components may have such similar polarities that they appear under one spot after development.
R f = Y/X (always ≤ 1)
If a development solvent of too high a polarity is ud, all components in the mixture will move along with the solvent and no paration will be obrved (Rf’s will be too large). If the solvent is of too low a polarity the components will not move enough, and again paration will not occur (Rf’s will be too small). In practice, different solvents or mixtures of solvents are tried until a good paration is obrved. Typically an effective solvent is one that gives Rf's in the range of 0.3 - 0.7. Note that the spotting solvent is simply ud as a vehicle to transfer the material to be analyzed to the TLC plate. Once the transfer is made the spotting solvent evaporates. It has no effect on the paration. It is the development solvent that effects the paration.
What’s going on at the molecular level during development? There are three components in TLC: (1) the TLC plate (stationary pha), the development solvent (mobile pha), and the sample to be analyzed (solute). In our experiment the TLC plate consists of a thin plastic sheet covered with a thin layer of silica gel, a portion of the structure of which is shown below.中国结教程
Si O OH
O Si
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OH
东方阳O
O Si
OH
O
O
Si O
O
Si
Si
O
Silica gel consists of a three-dimensional network of thousands of alternating silicon and oxygen bonds, with O-H groups on the outside surface. Silica gel is simply very finely ground very pure sand. It should be noted that silica gel is highly polar and is capable of hydrogen bonding. Consider the side-on view of the development of a TLC plate below. As the solvent travels up the plate, over the spot, an equilibrium is t up, as development solvent competes with the TLC plate for the solute. The silica gel binds to the solute and the development solvent tries to dissolve it away, carrying the solute(s) along as the solvent travels up the plate.
水之美A balance of intermolecular forces determines the position of equilibrium and thus the ability of the solvent to move the solute up the plate. In other words, would the spot prefer to be stuck on the plate or would it prefer to move along with solvent.
The balance depends upon (1) the polarity of the TLC plate (constant and high), (2) the polarity of the development solvent (can be varied by using different solvents), and (3) the polarity of the compounds in the spot (this varies depending upon what compounds are in the spot). For example, if a sample consists of two components, one more polar than the other, the more polar will tend to stick more tightly to the plate and the less polar will tend to move along more freely with the solvent. Using a more polar development solvent would cau both to move along further. If the approximate structures of the solutes are known, it is possible to make an educated guess as to what solvent or mixture of solvents to u. In practice though, for a given mixture of compounds to be analyzed, a solvent or mixture of solvents is chon by trial and error to give the best paration. (A caveat: the p
olarity argument is helpful in understanding the principles of TLC. Becau most compounds have some polarity the argument works well. For compounds having very low polarity however, a lower-polarity solvent may be more effective in moving the solute up the plate.)
To illustrate a TLC experiment, consider the following example of the analysis of a two-component mixture.
The polarity of molecules, solutes and solvents alike, is ordered as follows, from least to most polar:
Alkanes (least polar), alkyl halides, alkenes, aromatic hydrocarbons, ethers, esters, ketones, aldehydes, amines, alcohols, and carboxylic acids (most polar). Note however that many molecules contain multiple functional groups and that the overall polarity would be determined by all of the groups.
Experimental Procedure. (rev 1/08)
This experiment consists of two parts: (1) analyzing two different analgesics to determine the number of compounds in each and the identity of tho compounds and (2) studying the effect of solvent polarity on Rf. Look over the photos showing TLC on the cour website.
(1.) TLC analysis of analgesics.
Spotting. The powdered side of the silica gel plate, not the shiny, plastic side is the side that is spotted. Lightly draw a pencil line about 1 cm from the end of a plate. U a pencil, not a pen, and be careful to not scratch the surface of the plate too deeply. The plates are of such a size that only three spots can be run on each. U a fresh pipet for each spot. Make each spot as small as possi
ble (less than about 1 mm diameter). After applying the spots check them under the UV lamp to e that they are of a reasonable size. The UV light must be held clo to the plate to e the spots (CAUTION: do not look directly into the UV light.) If the spot is much too large, prepare a new plate. If a spot is too small, add more solution. Analyze two unknown analgesics in the following way: two of the three known compounds (references) plus the first analgesic to be analyzed (unknown 1) will be spotted on one plate, the same two knowns plus the cond analgesic (unknown 2) will be spotted on a cond plate, and both analgesic 1 and analgesic 2 along with the third known compound will be spotted on a third plate (e Figure below). (If the plates were
wider, you could analyze each unknown on just one plate.) To obtain a sample of a known solution, bring a micropipet to the sample solution at the side bench, dip it into the solution to fill it, then take it back to your workspace for spotting (U only micropipets for obtaining samples; do not u Pasteur pipets to take larger amounts of samples – that could lead to contamination). Try to minimize traffic at the side bench and take care to not contaminate the solutions with a micropipet that has already been ud. The purpo of the experiment is to determine which of the known compounds are contained in the analgesics that you cho to analyze. Solutions of the known compounds will already be made. You must make 1% solutions of the unknown analgesics. To do this, take a small
part of a crushed tablet and add enough ethanol to make an approximately 1% solution (very approximate - do not weigh samples). About 1 mg in veral drops of solvent will produce an approximately 1% solution. The analgesic contains insoluble binders so not all of it will dissolve.
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Development. The development chamber is a small screw-capped jar with a 5.5 cm filter paper placed into it to ensure that the atmosphere is saturated with vapor. Each run is relatively brief so plea u only one ethyl acetate development chamber. Otherwi there may not be enough for everyone. Place about 2 mL of ethyl acetate into the chamber (2 mL is a full squeeze of the bulb using a Pasteur pipet). Place the TLC plate into the jar with the spotted side at the bottom. Keep the cap on the jar at all times except when placing the plate into or taking the plate out of the jar. Wat
ch out for the following: the solvent must be below the level of the spots or the spotted material will dissolve in the development solvent; the plate must stand vertically in the tank and the silica gel must not touch the filter paper; the solvent must not be allowed to run all of the way to the top of the plate; the correct amount of material must be spotted (checking under UV light before development may help - if spots are too large, another plate can be made - if the spots are too small, more material can be spotted). The development takes little time so if a plate comes out poorly, another can easily be done. After the solvent has almost reached the top of the plate, the plate is removed and the position of the solvent front marked before the solvent evaporates. The plate is then allowed to dry in the hood. Always allow the developing solvent to run almost completely to the top of the plate. This will u the entire plate and allow for the best possible paration. Visualization. This is done by two methods. First, by short wavelenth UV light. (CAUTION: do not look directly into the light.) The light must be held clo to the plate to e the the spots. Some spots may be very faint. The obrved spots should be outlined with a pencil. The plate is then placed into a jar containing iodine crystals for a few minutes. Keep the iodine jar capped and in the fume hood. The spots may appear different from tho shown with the UV light. They should also be circled. A comparison of the two visualization techniques can be made and may help in
