大学英语自学教程（下）
01-A. What Is a Decision?
A decision is a choice made from among alternative cours of action that are available. The purpo of making a decision is to establish and achieve organizational goals and objectives. The reason for making a decision is that a problem exists, goals or objectives are wrong, or something is standing in the way of accomplishing them.
Thus the decision-making process is fundamental to management. Almost everything a manager does involves decisions, indeed, some suggest that the management process is decision making. Although managers cannot predict the future, many of their decisions require that they consider possible future events. Often managers m ust make a best guess a t what the future will be and try to leave as little as possible to chance, hut since uncertainty is always there, risk accompanies decisions. Sometimes the conquences of a poor decision are slight; at other times they are rious.
Choice is the opportunity to lect among alternatives. If there is no choice, there is no decision to be made. Decision making is the process of choosing, and many decisions have a broad range of choice. For example, a student may be able to choo among a number of different cours in order to implem
ent the decision to obtain a college degree. For managers, every decision has constraints bad on policies, procedures, laws, precedents, and the like. The constraints exist at all levels of the organization.
Alternatives are the possible cours of action from which choices can be made. If there are no alternatives, there is no choice and, therefore, no decision. If no alternatives are en, often it means that a thorough job of examining the problems has not been done. For example, managers sometimes treat problems in an either/or fashion; this is their way of simplifying complex problems. But the tendency to simplify blinds them
to other alternatives.
At the managerial level, decision making includes limiting alternatives as well as identifying them, and the range is from highly limited to practically unlimited.
Decision makers must have some way of determining which of veral alternatives is best -- that is, which contributes the most to the achievement of organizational goals. An organizational goal is an end or a state of affairs the organization eks to reach. Becau individuals (and organizations) frequently have different ideas about how to attain the goals, the best choice may depend on who m
akes the decision. Frequently, departments or units within an organization make decisions that are good for them individually but that are less than optimal for the larger organization. Called suboptimization, this is a trade-off that increas the advantages to one unit or function but decreas the advantages to another unit or function. For example, the marketing manager may argue effectively for an incread a dvertising budget. In the larger scheme of things, however, incread funding for rearch to improve the products might be more beneficial to the organization.
The trade-offs occur becau there are many objectives that organizations wish to attain simultaneously. Some of the objectives are more important than others, but the order and degree of importance often vary from person to person and from department to department. Different managers define the same problem in different terms. When prented with a common ca, sales managers tend to e sales problems, production managers e production problems, and so on.
The ordering and importance of multiple objectives is also bad, in part, on the values of the decision maker. Such values are personal; they are hard to understand, even by the individual, becau they are so dynamic and complex. In many business situations different people's values about acceptable degrees of risk and profitability cau disagreement about the correctness of decisions.
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People often assume that a decision is an isolated phenomenon. But from a systems point of view, problems have multiple caus, and decisions have intended and unintended conquences. An organization is
an ongoing entity, and a decision made today may have conquences far into the future. Thus the skilled manager looks toward the future conquences of current decisions.
01-B. Secrets of Success at an Interview
The subject of today's talk is interviews.
The key words here are preparation and confidence, which will carry you far.
Do your homework first.
阴阳两极Find out all you can about the job you are applying for and the organization you hope to work for.
Many of the employers I interviewed made the same criticism of candidates. "They have no idea what the day to day work of the job brings about. They have vague notions of "furthering the company's prospects’ or of 'rving the community', but have never taken the trouble to find out the actual tasks they will be required to do.”
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Do not let this be said of you. It shows an unattractive indifference
to your employer and to your job.
Take the time to put yourlf into the interviewer's place. He wants somebody who is hard-working with a pleasant personality and a real interest in the job.
Anything that you find out about the prospective employer can be ud to your advantage during the interview to show that you have bothered to master some facts about the people who you hope to work for.
Write down (and remember) the questions you want to ask the interviewer(s) so that you are not speechless w hen they invite your questions. Make sure that holidays and pay are not the first things you ask about. If all your questions have been answered during the interview, reply: "In fact, I did have veral questions, but you have already answered them all.”
Do not be afraid to ask for clarification of something that has been said during the interview if you want to be sure what was implied, but do be polite.
炸鸡块Just before you go to the interview, look again at the original advertiment that you answered, any c
orrespondence from your prospective employer, photocopies of your letter of application or application form and your resume.
Then you will remember what you said and what they want. This is very important if you have applied for many jobs in a short time as it is easy to become confud and give an impression of inefficiency.
Make sure you know where and when you have to report for the interview. Go to the building (but not inside the office) a day or two before, if necessary, t o find out how long the journey takes and where exactly the place is.
红军长征多少公里Aim to arrive five or ten minutes early for the actual interview, then you will have a little time in hand and you will not panic if you are delayed. You start at a disadvantage if you arrive worried and ten minutes late.
Dress in clean, neat, conrvative clothes. Now is NOT the time to experiment with the punk look or (girls) to wear low-cut dress w ith miniskirts. Make sure that your shoes, hands and hair (and teeth) are clean and neat.
Have the letter inviting you for an interview ready to show in ca there is any difficulty in communication.
You may find yourlf facing one interviewer or a panel. The latter
is far more intimidating, but do not let it worry you too much. The interviewer will probably have a table in front of him/her. Do not put your things or arms on it.
If you have a bag or a ca, put it on the floor beside your chair. Do not clutch it nervously or, wor still, drop it, spilling everything.
Shake hands if the interviewer offers his hand first. There is little likelihood that a panel of five wants to go though the process of all shaking hands with you in turn. So you do not be upt if no one offers.
Shake hands firmly -- a weak hand suggests a weak personality, and
a crushing grip is obviously painful. Do not drop the hand as soon as yours has touched it as this will em to show you do not like the other person.
Speak politely and naturally even if you are feeling shy. Think before you answer any questions.
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If you cannot understand, ask: "Would you mind rephrasing the question, plea?" The question will then be repeated in different words.面积最大的高原
If you are not definitely accepted or turned down on the spot, ask: "When may I expect to hear the results of this interview?"
If you do receive a letter offering you the job, you must reply by letter (keep a photocopy) as soon as possible.
Good luck!
宅男女神02-A. Black Holes
What is a black hole? Well, it's difficult to answer this question, since the terms we would normally u to describe a scientific phenomenon are inadequate here. Astronomers and scientists think that a black hole is a region of space (not a thing ) into which matter has fallen and from which nothing can escape ?not even light. So we can't e a black hole. A black hole exerts a strong gravitational pull and yet it has no matter. It is only space -- or so we think. How can this happen?
The theory is that some stars explode when their density increas to a particular point; they collaps
e and sometimes a supernova occurs. From earth, a supernova looks like a very bright light in the sky which shines even in the daytime. Supernovae were reported by astronomers in the venteenth and eighteenth centuries. Some people think that the Star of Bethlehem could have been a supernova. The collap of a star may produce a White Dwarf or a neutron star -- a star, who matter is so den that it continually shrinks by the force of its own gravity. But if the star is very large (much bigger than our sun) this process of shrinking
