Natural Science In the broadest n, science is systematized knowledge derived from and tested by recognition and formulation of a problem, collection of data through obrvation, and experimentation. 自然科学 在最广泛的意义上,科学是系统化的知识，来源于并且实践于对问题的认识和构想, 以及通过观察和实验的数据的收集。 We differentiate between social science and natural science in that the former deals with the study of people and how they live together as families, tribes, communities, races, and nations, and the latter deals with the study of nature and the physical world. 我们用来区分社会科学和自然科学的是，前者从事研究人作为家庭、部落、社区,种族,和国家如何生活在一起的,后者从事自然和物理世界的研究。 Natural science includes such diver disciplines as biology, chemistry, geology, physics, and environmental science. 自然科学包括生物学、化学、地质学、物理学和环境科学等不同的学科。 Environmental Science Whereas the disciplines of biology, chemistry, and physics (and their subdisciplines of microbiology, organic chemistry, nuclear physics, etc.) are focud on a particular aspect of natural science, environmental science in its broadest n encompass all the fields of natural science. 环境科学 而生物学、化学和物理的学科 (及其分支学科的微生物学,有机化学,核物理,等等)的重点是自然科学的一个特定方面,环境科学在其广义上包括所有的自然科学领域。 The historical focus of study for environmental scientists has been, of cour, the natural environment. 历来环境科学家研究的焦点，理所应当是自然环境。 By this, we mean the atmosphere, the land, the water and their inhabitants as differentiated from the built environment. 因此,我们指的是大气,土壤,水和居住环境，这些不同于建设的环境。 Modern environmental science has also found applications to the built environment or, perhaps more correctly, to the effusions [ɪf'ju:ʒns] from the built environment. 现代环境科学还建立了相应的建设环境应用,或者更准确的说,来应对建筑环境的排污。 Quantitative Environmental Science Science or, perhaps more correctly, the scientific method, deals with data, that is, with recorded obrvations. 定量环境科学 科学,或者更准确的说,科学的方法, 数据处理,也就是,观察记录。 The data is, of cour, a sample of the univer（经验领域）of possibilities. They may be reprentative or they may be skewed. 当然，数据是经验领域中样品的可能性。它们可有代表性的，也可能使被曲解的。 Even if they are reprentative，they will contain some random random [ˈrændəm] variation that cannot be explained with current knowledge. 即使他们是具有代表性的，它们也含有不能用现有的知识来解释某些随机变化。 Care and impartiality in gathering and recording data, as well as independent verification（ [ˌverɪfɪ‘keɪʃn] ，核实）, are the cornerstones of science 在数据收集与记录过程仔细认真、无偏见和独立核实是科学的基石. When the collection and organization of data reveal certain regularities, it may be possible to formulate a generalization（[ˌdʒenrəlaɪˈzeɪʃn]概论 ） or hypothesis 当对数据收集和整理披露了某些规律时，可能归纳出概论或假设。 This is merely a statement that under certain circumstances（[‘sɜ:kəmstənsɪz]境况 ） certain phenomena（[fə’nɒmɪnə] 现象 ） can generally be obrved. 这只是一份声明,在某些情况下,某些现象通常可以观察到。 Many generalizations are statistical in that they apply accurately to large asmblages （[əˈmblɪdʒz]聚集 ）but are no more than probabilities when applied to smaller ts or individuals. 许多概况的结论是准确适用于大的集合体，但是当应用在小集合或者个体中，概率就没那么大了戴克肖 In a scientific approach, the hypothesis （[haɪˈpɒθəsɪs]假说 ）is tested, revid, and tested again until it is proven acceptable. 在科学方法中,假说被测试,修改,并再次测试,直到它被证明是可以接受的。 If we can u certain assumptions or tie together a t of generalizations, we formulate a theory. 如果我们可以使用某些假设或配合一组概括,我们就建立了一个理论。 For example, theories that have gained acceptance over a long time are known as laws. 例如, 获得了长时间认同的理论，就会被作为定律。 Some examples are the laws of motion, which describe the behavior of moving bodies（什么成分？）, and the gas laws, which describe the behavior of gas. 一些例子如运动定律,是用来描述移动物体行为的；气体定律是用来描述描述气体行为的。 The development of a theory is an important accomplishment （ [əˈkʌmplɪʃmənt] 成就）becau it yields a tremendous consolidation （[kənˌsɒlɪ‘deɪʃən]，合并 ）of knowledge. 钢轨探伤理论的发展是一个重要的成就,因为它产生了一个巨大的知识整合。 Furthermore, a theory gives us a powerful new tool in the acquisition（ [ˌækwɪˈzɪʃn] 获得） of knowledge for it shows us where to look for new generalizations. 此外, 理论给我们提供了一个强大的新工具，它能够获取知识，因为它告诉我们到哪里去寻找新的结论。 Thus, the accumulation of data becomes less of a magpie collection of facts and more of a systematized hunt for needed information. 因此,数据的积累少于事实的胡乱收集，更多的是系统化地寻找需要的信息。 It is the existence of classification and generalization （ [ˌdʒenrəlaɪˈzeɪʃn]归纳 ）, and above all theory that makes science an organized body of knowledge. 正是这些分类和归纳的存在,最重要的还是理论,使科学成为的一个组织知识体系。 Logic is a part of all theories. The two types of logic are qualitative and quantitative logic 逻辑是理论的一部分。这两类逻辑学分为定性和定量逻辑学 Qualitative logic is descriptive. For example we can qualitatively state that when the amount of wastewater entering a certain river is too high, the fish die. 定性逻辑是描述性的。例如，我们可以定性陈述,当大量的废水进入某河流，量太大了,鱼死了。 With qualitative logic we cannot identify what “too high” means—we need quantitative logic to do that. 在定性逻辑，我们不能识别“过高”意味着，我们需要量化逻辑来做这件事。 When the data and generalizations are quantitative, we need mathematics to provide a theory that shows the quantitative relationships. 数据和归纳是定量的,我们需要数学来提供一个理论，它能够表达数量关系。 For example, a quantitative statement about the river might state that “when the mass of organic matter entering a certain river equals x kilograms per day, the amount of oxygen in the stream（河流） is y.” 以河为例,定量表述的可能陈述,“当大部分的有机质进入某一河流的质量等于每天x公斤，相当于氧气溶解量是y。” Perhaps more importantly, quantitative logic enables us to explore “What if?” questions about relationships. 或许更重要的是,量化逻辑,使我们得以探索“是否?”存在关系的问题。 For example, “if we reduce the amount of organic matter entering the stream, how much will the amount of oxygen in the stream increa?” 例如,“如果我们减少有机物进入河流的量,河流的含氧量会增加多少?” Furthermore, theories, and in particular, mathematical theories, often enable us to bridge the gap between experimentally controlled obrvations and obrvations made in the field 此外，理论，尤其是数学理论，通常使我们可以弥补（缩小）实验过程观察的结果与该领域理论推导的结果间的差距。 For example, if we control the amount of oxygen in a fish tank in the laboratory, we can determine the minimum amount required for the fish to be healthy. 例如,如果我们在实验室里控制氧气在一个鱼缸含量,我们可以确定鱼健康存活所需的最少含氧量。秋日黄昏 We can then u this number to determine the acceptable mass of organic matter placed in the stream. 我们可以使用这个数字来确定可接受的在河流中含有的有机物的量。 Thus, the accumulation of data becomes less of a magpie collection of facts and more of a systematized hunt for needed information. 因此,数据的积累和事实的收集变得更少，更多的是系统化的寻找需要的信息。 Given that environmental science is an organized body of knowledge about environmental relationships, then quantitative environmental science is an organized collection of mathematical theories that may be ud to describe and explore environmental relationships. 考虑到环境工程是关于环境关系的有体系的知识，定量环境科学是一个有序的数学理论体系，它被用来描述和探索环境关系。 Engineering Engineering is a profession that applies science and mathematics to make the properties（特性） of matter and sources of energy uful in structures, machines, products, systems, and process. 工程学 工程学是应用科学和数学的专业，研究物质特性，以及结构，机器，产品，系统和进程方面能源的来源 Environmental Engineering The Environmental Engineering Division（部门） of the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) has published the following statement of purpo that may be ud to show the relationship between environmental science and environmental engineering: 环境工程 美国土木工程师协会环境工程部门 (第3期)发表了以下声明的目的,是为了显示环境科学和环境工程之间的关系: Environmental engineering is manifest by sound engineering thought and practice in the solution of problems of environmental sanitation, notably in the provision of safe, palatable, and ample public water supplies 环境工程是在解决环境卫生问题过程中，具有代表性的，提供安全、可口与充足的公共供水过程，用正确的工程思想与合理的实施显现出来。 the proper disposal of or recycle of wastewater and solid wastes; the adequate drainage of urban and rural areas for proper sanitation; and the control of water, soil, and atmospheric pollution, and the social and environmental impact of the solutions. 妥善处理或回收废水和固体废弃物,城市和农村地区的足够的排水系统，适当的卫生设施,和控制水、土壤、大气污染,这些解决方案的社会和环境作用。 Furthermore it is concerned with engineering problems on the field of public health, such as control of arthropod-borne dias, the elimination of industrial health hazards, and the provision of adequate sanitation in urban, rural, and recreational areas, and the effect of technological advances on the environment. 此外，关心工程问题在公共卫生领域,如控制虫媒传播的疾病,消除工业健康危害,和在城市,农村,和休闲区,提供足够的卫生设施，科技进步对环境的作用。 Neither environmental science nor environmental engineering should be confud with heating, ventilating, or air conditioning (HVAC), nor with landscape architecture. 不要把环境科学和环境工程与加热,通风,空调(HVAC)混淆,也不与景观建筑混淆。 Neither should they be confud with the architectural and structural engineering functions associated with built environments, such as homes, offices, and other workplaces. 他们也不应该与建筑结构工程的功能与构建环境混淆，如家庭、办公室、和其他工作场所。 Selected from “Mackenzie L Davis, Susan J Masten. Principles of Environmental Engineering and Science, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. USA 2004” 选自“Mackenzie L Davis, Susan J Masten.环境工程与科学的原则,美国麦格劳-希尔股份有限公司 . 2004” Unit 2 Environmental Engineering The objective of this cour is to introduce engineering and science students to the interdisciplinary[ˌɪntərˈdɪsəplɪneri] study of environmental problems: their caus, why they are of concern, and how we can control them 本课程的目的是使工科和理科学生对环境问题的跨学科的研究有所了解：环境问题的起因，环境问题受关注的原因，如何控制环境问题。 Information on the basis caus of environmental disturbances 造成环境破坏的基本原因 Basis scientific knowledge necessary to understand the nature of environmental problems and to be able to quantify them 戒奢了解环境问题的性质并且量化环境问题所必需的基本科学知识 Current state of the technology environmental control in its application to water, air and pollution problems 环境控制技术在水、大气和固废污染问题方面应用的现状 Considerable gaps in our current scientific knowledge of understanding and controlling many of the complex interactions between human activities and nature 在理解和控制在人类活动和自然界复杂的相互作用上所需的科学知识的巨大差异 Many environmental problems which could be eliminated [ɪ'lɪmɪnetɪd] or reduced by the application of current technology, but which are not dealt with becau of society’s lack of will to do so, or in many instances becau of a lack of resources to do so. 很多环境问题利用现有的技术是能够得到消除或降低的，但为什么却没有实施，原因就在于社会不愿意去做，或者缺乏必需的资源。 Environment is the physical and biotic [baɪ'ɑtɪk] habitat which surrounds us; that which we can e, hear, touch, smell, and taste. 环境：是指我们周围的物理和生物生境，我们可以看到，听到，触到，闻到和感受到这些事物。 System. according to Wehster’ s dictionary , is defined as “a t or arrangement of things so related or connected as to form a unit or organic whole; as, a solar system, irrigation system, supply system, the world or univer”. 系统：根据韦氏字典的定义，就是“一系列有联系或有关系的事物形成的一个有机整体或一个单元”，像太阳系、灌溉系统、供应系统、世界或宇宙。 Pollution can be defined as an undesirable change in the physical, chemical, or biological characteristics of the air, water, or land that can harmfully affect the health, survival, or activities of humans or other living organisms. 污染可以定义为空气、水和陆地的物理、化学或生物性能受到了被迫性的改变，对人类的健康、生存和活动或其他生命机体造成了伤害 When the goal of improving environmental quality is taken to be improving human well being. the word “environment” broadens to include all kinds of social, economic, and cultural aspects. 当改善环境质量目标用来改善人体健康时，环境这个词的含义就拓宽到包括各种社会、经济和文化方面。 Such broadness is unworkable in many real situations and impractical in a textbook designed for a one-mester cour. 事实上，这样的扩展对许多情况是不可行的，而且在教科书上设定为一个学期的课程也是不切实际的。 Our examination of environmental problems is therefore limited by our definition of “environment”. 因此，我们对环境问题的应对受我们的“环境”定义的限定 A number of different environmental problems are associated with water, air, or land systems. 许多不同的环境问题跟水、大气和土壤圈密切相关 Many of the problems will apply only within one of the systems, justifying the breakdown into the categories ['kætəɡɔrɪz]. 而许多问题只适用于其中一个系统，正因为此这也说明了上述分类的合理性 Moreover, it is nsible becau, for managerial and administrative [əd'mɪnɪstretɪv] reasons® , such subfields as air pollution, water supply, wastewater disposal, and solid waste disposal are often dealt with parately by governmental agencies. 并且从行政管理方面看也是合理的，空气污染、供水、废水处理和固体废物处置，这些单个环境问题都被政府部门分开单独处理 Unfortunately, many important environmental problems are not confined to an air, water, or land system, but involve interactions between systems. 事实上，许多重大的环境问题并不局限于大气、水或土壤圈中的某个单一系统，而是各系统之间相互作用。 Such a classification [,klæsɪfɪ'keʃən] is also uful for easier comprehension [,kɑmprɪ'hɛnʃən] of related problems within one system. 这种分类方法有助于我们更好的理解同一系统的相关问题。 A current example is the acid rain problem stemming from the emission of sulfur dioxide [ˈsʌlfɚ daɪˈɑksaɪd] and nitrogen ['naɪtrədʒən] oxide gas into the atmosphere from the stacks [stæks](大量 ; 成堆的） of generating stations®, smelters, and automobile exhausts. 一个典型的例子是由于从许多发电站、冶炼厂和汽车尾气向大气释放的二氧化硫和氮氧化物造成的酸雨问题。 The gas are then transported by air currents over wide regions, Rainfall “washes them out”, creating acid rain which is harmful to aquatic [ə'kwætɪk] （水生植物或动物）life, forests, and agricultural crops. 这些气体被气流输送到更广的区域，然后经降雨的冲刷后形成了酸雨，这对水生生物、森林和农作物有危害。 Two examples of interaction between systems that cau major environmental disturbances are prented-the buildup of atmospheric carbon dioxide, a global problem. and the acid rain problem, normally of regional nature. 对各系统间的相互作用造成了较大的环境破坏这里给出了两个例子，一个是全球性问题即大气中二氧化碳的逐渐增加，另一个是酸雨问题，通常是区域性问题。 The production of more and better quality food 越来越丰富、越来越好吃的食品 The creation of housing as protection from extremes from climates and as living space 创造了可以保护我们免受极端气候并作为生活空间的房子 The building of fast and reliable means of transportation 方便快捷的交通运输系统 The invention of various systems of communication 各类通讯系统的发明 The invention of machines to replace human or animal power 代替人力和动物的机器发明 The supply of safe water and the disposal of wastes 安全引用水的供应与废物的处置 The elimination [ɪ,lɪmə'neʃən] of many infectious dias 许多传染病的消灭 The elimination [ɪ,lɪmə'neʃən] of most water-borne dias in the developed world through improved water technology 在发达国家通过改进水处理工艺消除了大多数水传染病 The availability of leisure ['liʒɚ] time through greater productivity, providing the opportunity for cultural and recreational [,rɛkri'eʃənəl] activities 由于高效的生产效率，用于文化娱乐的时间增加了 傲骨是什么意思The protection from the worst effects of natural disasters such as floods, droughts [draʊts], earthquakes, and volcanic eruptions [vɑ:lˈkænɪk] [ɪˈrʌpʃən]. 保护我们不受例如洪水、干旱、地震和火山喷发等自然灾害的恶劣影响 With the improvements, however, have come disturbing side effects, such as lost arable ['ærəbl] land, disappearing forests, environmental pollution, and new organisms resistant to controls. 尽管有所改进，但也带来了负面效应，比如可耕地的消失、森林的消失、环境污染和新生物入侵等。 Many effects originally considered to be just nuisances [ˈnu:sns] are now recognized as potential threats to nature and to human. 许多影响一开始被认为只是一点小问题，但现在被认识到对自然和人类都存在潜在的危害。 In an agrarian [ə'ɡrɛrɪən] society, people lived esntially [ɪ'sɛnʃəli] in harmony with nature, raising food, gathering firewood, and making clothing and tools from the land. 在农业社会，人们依靠精耕细作、烧柴做饭、手工裁衣、制造工具，与自然和谐相处。 The wastes from animals and humans were returned to the soil as fertilizer ['fɝtəlaɪzɚ]. Few, if any, problems of water, land, or air pollution occurred. 人和动物产生的垃圾作为肥料返耕。所以水、土壤和大气污染的情况很少发生。 The cities of ancient [ˈeɪnʃənt] times, particularly tho of the Roman Empire® had systems to supply water and to dispo of wastes. 古代时期，特别是罗马帝国时期，拥有完善的供水和排水系统。 The aqueducts ['ækwɪ'dʌkt] supplying the ancient city of Rome (population about 1 million) with safe water from the Cloaca Maxims [klo'ekə] ['mæksɪm] ©, the best known and one of the earliest wers to be built, are examples of such systems. 用水管从世界上最早建造的天下闻名的Cloaca Maxima向罗马城（大约百万人口）输送饮用水，就是其中的一个例子。 The municipal [mju'nɪsɪpl] technology of ancient cities ems to have been forgotten for many centuries by tho who built cities throughout Europe. 电热水器漏水几个世纪以来，整个欧洲城市的建筑者们忘记了古代城市的市政工程。 Water supply and waste disposal were neglected, resulting in many outbreaks of dyntery ['dɪsəntɛri], cholera ['kɑlərə], typhoid ['taɪfɔɪd]. and other waterborne ['wɔtəbɔn] dias. 人们忽略了供水和排水，导致痢疾、霍乱、伤寒和其他水源性疾病多次爆发 Until the middle of the nineteenth century, it was not realized that improper wastes disposal polluted water supplies with dia-carrying organisms. 直到19世纪中期，人们才意识到不正确的废物处置方式污染了水源，导致水体携带病原体。 The industrial revolution in nineteenth- century Britain, Europe, and North America aggravated ['ægrə'vetɪd] the environmental problems since it brought incread urbanization [,ɝbənɪ'zeʃən] with the industrialization. 19世纪英国、欧洲和北美的工业革命带来的城市化和工业化加速了环境恶化 Both phenomena [fə'nɑmənə], urbanization [,ɝbənɪ'zeʃən] and industrialization, were and are fundamental [ˌfʌndəˈmɛntl] caus of water and air pollution which the cities of that time were unable to handle. 无论是现在还是过去，城市化和工业化这两种现象是水和大气污染的根本原因，这是那个时期的城市所无法处理的。 Rapid advances in technology for the treatment of water and the partial treatment of wastewater took place in the developed countries over the next few decades. 在接下来的几十年里，水处理技术和部分废水治理技术在发达国家得到了快速发展。 This led to a dramatic [drə'mætɪk] decrea in the incidence ['ɪnsɪdəns] of waterborne dias®. Note that all wastes discharge into the environment, and thus pollute our water, air, and land systems. 水传染性疾病的发病率随之也急剧减少。记住：排放到环境的所有废物 ，它们污染了我们的水、大气和土壤。 Unit 3 What is Waste Reduction/Waste Minimaization A great amount of time has been spent in the U.S. discussing the terminology of such words as source reduction, waste minimization, recycling and pollution prevention. EPA has provided the following definitions. source: carbon, energy, nitrogen,and so on. 在美国，人们花费了大量的时间来讨论如何定义诸如source reduction （源消减）, waste minimization（废物最小量化）, recycling 和pollution prevention. EPA给出了如下的定义 Source reduction. Any action that reduces the amount of waste exiting （离开）a process. 什么什么变了作文源消减：任何能够减少从一个工艺过程中产生的废物的总量的动作（行动）。 This includes, for example，process changes, feedstock changes, improved houkeeping/ management, and in-process recycling. 这包括如改变工艺,改变进料,改善管理,以及工艺内循环等。 Waste minimization. The reduction to the extent feasible (可能的) of waste that is generated or subquently treated, stored, or dispod of. 废物最少化：将生产出的废物以及随后的处理、保管或处置等减少到最小的过程。 It includes any source reduction or recycling activity undertaken （承担）by a generator that results in either the reduction of the total volume or quantity of waste or the reduction in the toxicity of waste (or both) as long as （以..为条件，只要）the reduction is consistent with (与一致) the goal of minimization of prent and future threats （威胁）to human health and the environment. 这包括能够导致废物体积或数量的减少或废物毒性的减少（或者2者兼备）的任何由generator主导的源减量或循环利用活动，只要这样的减量活动与将目前和将来对人体和环境的威胁最小化的目的一致。 Recycling. The u or reu of a waste as a substitute（替代品） for a commercial product or as a feedstock to an industrial process. 将废物利用或再利用为某一商业产品的替代品，或作为某一工艺过程的进料。 This includes the on-or off-site reclamation (废料回收,开垦) of uful fractions of a waste or the removal of contaminants from a waste to allow reu. 这包括将废物的有用部分在线或离线回收利用，或将废物中的污染物质脱除使其能够被再利用利用。 Pollution prevention. Pollution may be generated during manufacturing, or when certain products are ud commercially or by consumers. This may be prevented in three ways: 在生产过程当中，或某些产品在商业（工业）化应用或被消费者使用过程中，会产生污染。这样的污染可以以如下的三种方式防止： changing inputs/reducing reliance(依赖) on toxic or hazardous raw materials; process changes/ increasing efficiency/improved maintenance such as equipment modifications, better houkeeping, in-process clod-loop recycling; or changing outputs/ reducing reliance on toxic or hazardous products. 改变进/减少对有毒或危险品原料的依赖；工艺改变/提高效率/改善设备的维护，如设备改造，更好的内部管理，在线闭路循环; 或改变产出/减少对有毒或危险品的依赖 With the passage of the Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments to the Resource Conrvation and Recovery Act in 1984, the U. S. Congress established a national policy declaring the importance of reducing or eliminating the generation of hazardous waste. 随着1984年美国RCRA资源回收保护法危险和固体废弃物修正案的通过，美国国会建立了一个国家政策，在这个国政中表明了减少或消除危险废弃物的重要性。 The Congress hereby（据此）declares it to be a national policy of United States that wherever feasible, the generation of hazardous waste is to be reduced or eliminated as expeditiously (迅速而有效的) as possible. 美国国会据此声称，这是联邦各州的国家政策，即只要合理可行，对危险废弃物的生产的减量或消除都要尽可能的迅速有效的实施。 Waste that is nevertheless generated should be treated, stored, or dispod of so as to minimize prent and future threat to human health and the environment. 尽管如此，对仍然产出的废物应当对其进行适当的处理，储存或处置以将其对人类健康和环境的目前和未来的危害降低到最小 In 1990, the U. S. Congress pasd the Pollution Prevention Act, establishing a hierarchy (体系，层次) of waste management as national policy; stating that first pollution should be prevented or reduced wherever feasible; cond, waste should be recycled in an environmentally safe manner; third, waste should be treated; and as a last resort (万不得已，最后手段), waste should be dispod of or relead to the environment. 在1990年，每国国会通过了污染防止法，建立了对废弃物的管理体系，并将其作为国政，声称: 首先，只要可行，就要防止或减少污染；其次，废弃物应当以对环境安全的方式循环回收；三，应当对废弃物处理；最后，万不得已，才将废弃物排放或释放到环境当中。 With the passage of the and other environmental laws, waste minimization has become an important operating philosophy (哲学,人生观) in the United States. 随着这些及其他环境法律的通过，废物最少化在美国开始成为一个重要的经营理念。 Waste Reduction/ Waste minimization Techniques 废物减量、废物最少化技术 While, for any particular plant, waste minization is certainly plant-or-site specific, the techniques ud can be grouped into a variety of major categories 尽管对任何特定的工厂，废物最少化肯定是因地制宜的，但所使用的技术可以归结为如下主要分类： product changes 产品改变 process changes 工艺改变 equipment modifications 设备改造 operating practices 操作实践 recycling and reu 循环和再利用 循环: 回到原来的使用地方; 循环水，催化剂. 再利用，fresh water, black water, grey water中水冲厕浇花 In practice, the waste minimization opportunities are limited only by the ingenuity (心灵手巧) of the plant personnel. 实际上，废物最小化的机会受到工厂机敏人员的限制 The techniques have applications across the vast range of industries and manufacturing process, and can apply to both hazardous and nonhazardous waste. 这些技术已经在大量的工业和制造业工艺中使用，而且可以用于危险和非危险的废物。 Product changes 产品改变 Frequently, a nontoxic material can be substituted for （代替）one that is toxic. Examples of this are numerous （众多，无数的） 通常，可以用非毒性物质来替代有毒物质。 这样的例子是众多的. Lockheed successfully switched from an alkaline cyanide cadmium bath to an acidic non-cyanide cadmium bath. 洛克希德成功将碱性氰化镉浴切换为一种酸性非氰化镉浴。 The plating quality was equivalent and overall costs were reduced due to simplified waste treatment required, even though the plating chemicals costs were higher. 由于需要对废物的处理得到了简化，即使是电镀化学品的消耗成本更高，电镀总的花费还是得到降低，而且，电镀的质量不变。 The Department of Defen has been involved in testing quite a variety of “safe substitutes” to replace hazardous solvents such as perchloroethylene, methyl chloroform, and trichlorotrifluoroethane, utilized for metal cleaning. 美国国防部一直参与到一项测试中，可用于替代作为金属清洗剂的危险溶剂如全氯乙烯、甲基氯仿、三氯乙烷,三氯三氟乙烷的大量的“安全代用品”。 perchloromethane四氯化碳，methane-methyl, ethane-ethyl, propane-propyl, butane-butyl, pentane-pentyl armyl, hexane-hexyl, heptane-heptyl, octane-octyl As a result, some of the maintenance shops are beginning to replace their vapor degrears and cold solvent tanks with aqueous, biodegradable solvents. 作为结果，一些维修店开始用液体可生物降解溶剂来代替如气相脱脂剂和冷溶剂罐（用于清洗的与气相脱脂剂相对应的液相溶剂，通常称为cold solvent cleaning tank） APS Materials, Inc. generated two hazardous wastes, 1-1-1 trichloroethane and methanol from cold solvent degreasing operations associated with their plasma spray deposition process. APS材料公司在其等离子体喷涂沉淀工艺过程中的冷溶剂脱脂操作中会生产出2中有害废物： 111三氯甲烷和甲醇。（APS Materials, Inc., 1975年由4个工程师创立的公司，搞thermal spray coating）. A terpine-bad cleaner was substituted for the two hazardous materials and has proven to be an environmental and economic success. 一个松油稀型清洗剂已经被证明可以环保和经济的用来代替这两个危险物质。（此2物质在脱脂操作中要用到，从而作为废物而产生）。 Riker Laboratories, a 3M pharmaceutical plant. coated medicine tablets with solvents. Solvent emissions had the potential to exceed air pollution limits forthcoming. Riker实验室，3M医药工厂，用溶剂来给药片敷膜。溶剂的释放有可能会超出即将来临的空气污染指标。 A water-bad coating was developed to replace the solvent coating. Different spraying equipment was installed and the product was tested for quality and stability. Tests were positive and 24 tons of air pollution was prevented annually. 一个以水为基的敷膜技术被开发出来以替代溶剂敷膜。安装了不同的喷涂设备，并对产品的质量和稳定兴做了测试。测试结果是积极的（正，negative，阴性，负），每年可以防止24吨的空气污染。 AT&T has a goal to achieve a 100% reduction of CFC’s （chlorofluorocarbon） by 1994 and to eliminate toxic air emissions of all types by the year 2000. AT&T有个目标，即到1994年，将CFC’s减少到100％，到2000年，消除所有类型的有毒空气排放。 They have substituted a derivative of citrus fruits and other organic compounds, for solvents ud to clean electronic equipment; and eliminated CFC u in circuitboard manufacturing process through u of the AT&T Low Solid Fluxer (flux:焊剂). 他们已经用从柑桔类水果衍生出的产品和其他有机化学品代替了用于电气设备清洗的溶剂， 而且，通过使用AT&T Low Solid Fluxer，在其电路板制造工艺中消除了CFC的使用。 Substituting d-Limonene for chlorinated solvents allowed Xerox to reduce the amount of solvents emitted to the atmosphere from about 200,000 pounds to 17,000 pounds. 将d－柠檬油精替代氯化溶剂使得Xerox（施乐）公司将释放到大气中的溶剂的量从200,000吨减少到17,000吨。 Process changes 改变工艺 A high pressure water strip operation has enabled Xerox to recycle 800,000 pound of nickel and 2 million pounds of aluminum tubes per years, and to return 160,000 pounds of Selenium (səˋlinɪəm) to suppliers for reu. 高压水汽提操作工艺使得施乐公司每年可以将80万磅的镍和2百万磅的铝管循环使用， 而且可以将16万磅的硒返给供货商回用。 Scott Paper Company has developed a system for source deduction known as “precycling” in which paper products are packages in larger quantities thus saving materials that would otherwi have been wasted. Scott 纸业公司开发了一个系统来从源头减少废弃物，即人们所知的precycling, 在该系统中，纸产品被以更大的数量包装，以节省随后要废弃掉的材料。 Precycling is the practice of reducing waste by attempting to avoid bringing into the home or business items which will generate waste. It includes such practices as buying consumables in bulk to reduce packaging, buying consumables in recyclable packaging over non-recyclable packages, avoiding junk mail, and using electronic media for reading materials, especially throw away items such as magazines or newspapers. As recycling requires large amounts of energy to "melt down" and then re-manufacture items, it also nds large amounts of pollution into the air. While it may cut down on the amount of trash that is going into landfills, it is not a sustainable answer to the problem of waste. Chevron ud to dispo of tank bottoms in landfills. It now u a centrifuge to parate oil from water; it reus the oil and treats the water leaving only a small amount of solid to be landfilled (less than 5% of the original sludge). Chevron 过去将油罐的罐底油填埋处理。 现在，它先用离心机将油水分离，油再利用，而将水拿去处理，只剩下很少的固体部分才填埋（少于原来油泥的5％）。 At 3M’s Office System Division plant a temperature control computer has been adapted to control start-up temperatures, and has eliminated start-up waste for an annual saving of $ 533,200 in silver, paper, solvents, and labor. The capital cost was $16,000. 在3M的办公系统部工厂，采用一台温度控制计算机来控制启动温度，减少的启动废物以银、纸张和人力合计每年达到533,200美元。成本是16,000美元. 137 tons of solid waste were eliminated, 53 tons of air pollution was prevented. 137吨的固体废弃物被消除,并防止了53吨的空气污染. Equipment modifications 设备改造 Equipment may be modified to enhance recovery or recycling operations to produce less waste，or to improve operating efficiency. 可以对设备改造以改善回收或循环操作从而减少废物产出， 或提高操作效率。 An Exxon plant in Bayway, New Jery, installed floating roofs on 16 tanks storing the most volatile chemicals ud in the plant. 在美国新泽西州bayway 的Exxon工厂，对储存有最易挥发的化学品的16个储罐安装了浮顶。 A floating roof is a cover that rests on the surface of the liquid being stored in the tank. 浮顶是安置在储存有液体的储罐的液体上的盖子 The roof ris and falls as the level of the liquid changes, thus minimizing the formation of chemical vapors that have to be vented from the tank. 浮顶随液位变化上升或下降，从而使生成的必须从罐内排放掉的化学品蒸汽的量最少。 Emissions reductions totaled 680, 000 pounds per year, worth more than $ 200,000. 每年减少的蒸发量合计68万磅，价值超过20万美元。 Operating practices 操作实践 Often good houkeeping is the key to better waste minimization. Such practices as maintaining a strict preventive maintenance program eliminate much wasted material. 通常，好的内部管理是获得更佳废物最小化的关键。比如维持一个严格的预防性维修计划，可以杜绝很多的材料浪费。 Sloppy houkeeping practices such as leaking tanks, valves, or pumps may cau process chemicals to spill requiring cleanup and disposal. 随意马虎的内部管理习惯，如储罐、阀门或泵的泄漏，都会导致工艺过程中化学品的溅漏而需要采取清洗和处理措施。 Poor cleaning of parts or inadequate dragout time will reduce the ufulness of the process chemicals, increa the cost of waste disposal, and the cost of chemical replacement. 不良的部件清洗或不适当的拖延时机会降低工艺过程化学品的有用性，提高废物处置成本，以及化学品置换（替代）成本。 Improving materials receiving, storage, and handing practices are needed in some plants so that materials are not “wasted” before u. 在一些工厂需要对材料在接收、储存和处理实践上予以改善以便使这些废物在使用前不会被浪费掉。 Educating employees so that equipment is ud correctly is important. For example operator training on proper painting spray (paintbrus，brushing) techniques may offer untold benefits. 对员工进行教育以便使设备能够被正确的使用是重要的。例如，对操作人员进行恰当的油漆喷涂技巧的培训可以提供无尽的好处。 Purchasing and inventory（清单，清点存货） practices may need improvement. Raw materials that lo their ufulness becau they sit on the shelf too long become waste. 可能需要改善采购和盘点库存活动。原料由于其被放置在架上过长而失去使用价值从而成为废物。 Having agreements with suppliers to recycle containers, u less packaging, etc. (et cetera) may reduce the solid waste of the company. 与供货商达成协议回收容器，使用更少的包装材料等都可以减少公司的固体废料。 Proper gregation（分离，integration，联合） of waste streams will allow more opportunity for recycling and reclamation. 对废物物流的适当的（清、污）分流可以提供更多的机会来循环和回收。 It is often less expensive to recycle a chemical than to purcha new material and pay for disposal costs. 通常，循环使用一化学品要比购买新的原料然后再为其的处置买单要更便宜。 Sometimes a material may no longer meet specifications for one purpo but may be suitable for others us at the facility. 有时，某一材料可能不再满足原用途的规格，但可能会适合在工厂内其它的地方使用。 For example, solvent ud to clean paint equipment may rve as thinner（薄，稀释，稀释剂） for the next batch. 例如，用于清洗油漆设备的溶剂可以在接下来的批次作业中作为稀释剂使用。 Recycling and reu 循环和再利用 Clod-loop systems eliminate disposal of hazardous chemicals. Recycling can be performed both on-site and off-site. 闭路系统杜绝了危险化学品的排放。循环可以以在线和离线的方式实施。 Waste exchanges may provide opportunity for a waste at one plant to become a uful product at another. 通过废物交换可以提供机会使某一在此工厂的废物能够在其它地方成为有用的产品。 Waste Minimization/Waste Reduction Implementation 废物最小化/废物减量实施 In order for an industry to implement waste minimization/waste reduction, certain elements need to be in place (就位). 为了使一个企业能够实施废物最小化/废物减量，需要设置一些要素。 First there should be ownership or management commitment（委托）. This should be a written policy indicating support of waste minimization. 首先，应当有物主或董事会的授权。这应该是表明支持废物极小化的一个书面政策。 Management must be recognized as desirous of this program before employees will adopt it with any enthusiasm（巨大的热情）. 在雇员将以极大的热情地采用废物最小化/减量化程序之前，董事会必须被认为是渴望这个计划的。 The commitment has to be real, to affect production decisions, and to be a part of job performance evaluations. 承诺必须是真实的，以便影响生产决策，并将其做为工作性能评价的一部分。 A waste minimization team should be established. Although each company will differ and specific， number and makeup vary depending on company size, complexity, and resources, this team should be compod of a variety of people who can be contribute to the waste minimization effort. 应当成立一个废物最小化团队。尽管根据公司的规模，复杂度和资源状况不同，每个公司的团队的人员数量和组成会不同，且有自己的特点，这个团队的组成应当包括这样一些能够对废物最小化作出贡献的人们。 Examples of tho who should be a part of the team include reprentatives from the following. 那些应当成为这个团队成员的例子包括下列单位的代表： management 董事会 environmental engineering 环境工程部 facilities maintenance 设备维护部（设备处） process engineering 工艺工程（技术处） production 生产部（调度室） safety and health 安全和健康部 rearch and development 研究开发部 quality control 质量控制 purchasing/inventory control 采购/盘点控制 shipping/receiving/warehousing 装运/接收/库存 accounting 会计 personnel 人力 marketing 销售 Members of the team need to have regular meeting to brainstorm (头脑风暴) and identify opportunities. 这些团队的成员应当定期开会集体讨论并找出机会来。 Every waste steam (stream) should be considered an opportunity until proven otherwi. Remember, wastes are disadvantaged resources! 每一个废物流在没有相反的证明前都应当认为是一个机会。记住，废物是不好的资源。 The objective of the waste minimization program should be clearly defined so that every one knows what is to be achieved and how progress is being made. 应该清楚确定废物极小化方案的目标，以便使每个人都知道将要实现的目标和进展是怎样被取得。 Status reports should be compared with a program schedule to determine whether the desired results are being met. 应当将状态报告与方案计划表进行比较以便确定预期的结果是否达到。 Opportunities should be prioritized（按优先次序排列）. 云的英文应当将机会按优先次序排队。 Not all wastes have the same value. 不是所有的废物都有相同的价值的。 Look for the “low-hanging fruit” (that most easily reached first), for the obviously wasteful practices, for the cost/benefit ratios, for the distinct hazards. 要寻找“低挂水果”（最容易达到的）,明显的浪费恶习，成本/收益比，以及明显的危险品。 Involve everybody. Educate employees and let everyone make suggestions for waste minimization. 让每个人都参与进来。教育员工并让每个人都为废物最小化提供建议。 Everyone “wastes” something，and therefore, may have a solution. 每个人都在“waste”一些东西，因此有可能有解决方案。 Determine the technical and economic feasibility of the suggestions made. 确定所作建议的技术和经济可行性。 Perform a waste asssment to determine opportunities to eliminate waste generation. 实施一个废物评估以确定杜绝废物产生的机会。 Identify costs/savings of waste management, disposal, treatment, and waste minimization. 确定废物管理，处置，处理和废物最小化需要的花费/节省。 Economic and technical feasibility studies need to be implemented to determine whether an idea should be attempted. Demonstration（示范，例子） projects may be necessary. 应当实施经济和技术可行性研究以确定是否尝试一项新的idea办法，主意. 可能需要示范项目（工程）。 Learn from others. Much has been written in the waste minimization area. 向他人学习。在废物最小化领域有很多的文献。 Many are willing to share their knowledge. Don’t try to reinvent the wheel. （reinvent the wheel：trying to think of a new way of doing something that has been done in the same way for a very long time）. 很多人愿意将他们的知识与你共享。不要试图重新发明轮子。 Develop networking partners to share ideas. Attend conferences, utilize technology transfer centers. 创建网络伙伴来共享ideas 想法。参加会议，使用技术交流中心。 Remember that waste minimization is a continuing, continual process and that waste reduction pays dividends（股息）! 记住，废物减量是一个持续不断的过程，而且废物减量会给你带来无穷的好处 Unit 4 Environmental Analysis Environmental analysis involves the performance of chemical, physical and biological measurements in an environmental system. 环境分析包括对在一个环境系统内对该环境所做的化学物理和生物的度量。 This system may involve either the natural or the polluted environment, although the term “environmental analysis” is increasingly ud to refer only to situations in which measurements are made of pollutants. 尽管“环境分析“越来越多的用于专指对于污染物的评价的状况，这样的系统可以是天然的或污染的环境。 Normally four types of measurements are made: qualitative analysis to identify the species prent; quantitative analysis to determine how much of the species is prent; speciation or characterization to establish details of chemical form and the manner in which the pollutant is actually prent (such as being adsorbed onto the surface of a particle); and impact analysis in which measurements are made for the specific purpo of determining the extent to which an environmental impact is produced by the pollutants in question. 通常，要做4个类型的度量：定性分析以确定存在哪些种类；定量分析以确定这些种类的存在数量；种群或特性分析以确定化学结构细节，以及污染物实质存在的方式（如被吸附在颗粒物体的表明）;影响评价，为了特定的目的，就关心的污染物对环境的影响程度范围作出度量。 The overall objective of environmental analysis is to obtain information about both natural and pollutant species prent in the environment so as to make a realistic asssment (评估) of their probable behavior. 环境评价的总的目的是要获得有关天然和污染物质在环境系统内存在的信息，以此来对其可能的表现作出评估。 In the ca of pollutants, this involves asssment of their actual or potential environmental impact which may be manifest (体现，表明) in veral ways. 就污染物质而言，这涉及到评估其实际或潜在的环境影响，而这环境影响可以几种方式体现。 Thus, a pollutant species may prent a toxicological (毒理的) hazard to plants or animals. 因而，一个污染物质可以表现出对植物或动物的一种毒性危害。 It may also cau contamination of resources ( such as air water and soil ) so that they cannot be utilized for other purpos. 它也可能会导致对资源的污染(如空气水和土壤)，从而（所以）导致其不会被用作其它的用途。 The effects of pollutants on materials, especially building materials may be another area of concern and one which is often very visible and displeasing (for example. the defacing of ancient statues by sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere). 污染物对材料的影响，特别是对建筑材料的影响可能是另一个需要关系的领域，而且这样的影响是经常能够看到而且令人不悦的（例如，空气中的SO2对古代雕像的外观腐蚀磨损）。 A further area of environmental impact involves esthetic（美感） depreciation（贬值，减价） such as reduced visibility, dirty skies, and unpleasant odors. 更进一步的环境影响包括了感官度的降低，如可观赏性降低，肮脏的天空，和不悦的气味。 Finally, it is important to recognize that an environmental impact may not always be discernible (可识别) by normal human perception（知觉，感觉） so that detection may require sophisticated （复杂的，高级的，有经验的） chemical or physical analys. 最后，这非常重要，要认识到环境影响并不总是能够被普通的人的感觉所识别，因此，需要高级复杂的化学或物理分析以检测环境影响。 In order to provide a meaningful description of the general field of environmental analysis, this field may be considered from three points of view: the basic concepts underlying the reasons for and choice of the analys which are normally performed; the available techniques and methodology commonly ud; and the current status of capabilities in environmental analysis. 为了给出一个有意义的关于环境评价的通用领域的描述，这样的领域应当从如下3个角度来考虑：有关实施环境分析的原因和分析方法选择的基本概念；可行的技术和当前使用的方法；以及当前环境分析能力状态 Some of the philosophical concepts which form the bas for environmental analys are as follows. 构成环境分析基础的一些自然概念例举如下： Purpo: Collection and analysis of an environmental sample may be undertaken for the purpo of rearch or monitoring, or as a spot check(抽样调查). A spot check analysis is ud to obtain rapid information about the approximate extent（程度） or nature（性质） of an environmental problem. 目的：收集和分析环境样品可能是基于研究、监控或抽样调查的目的进行的。抽样调查被用来快速获得有关环境问题的程度和性质的信息。 Authenticity(可靠性). Whatever the information being sought, it is vitally（致命地） important to obtain an authentic sample which reprents the particular system being investigate. 无论要寻找的是什么信息，获得一个能够代表要调查的特定系统的真实样品是至关重要的。 In fact, the ability to obtain an authentic sample is probably one of the most difficult aspects of any environmental analysis due to the considerable complexity and heterogeneity（异种，非均匀性,homogeneity,同种，同质） of most environmental systems。 事实上，由于大多数环境系统的客观的复杂性和非均一性，能够获得一个真实的样品是任何一个环境分析中最困难的一部分。 Detection limits. A statement of the detection limits which can be attained by the analytical method being employed must always be included in providing the results of any environmental analysis. 检测极限：对所使用的分析方法所能达到的检测极限的叙述必须包括在给出的任何环境分析结果中。 This is becau considerable confusion（混乱） exists about the meaning of a “zero” level of concentration. In fact, it is probably never possible to state that none of the atoms or molecules of the species in question （作为问题）are prent so that no true zero exists. 这是因为关于浓度等级中“零”的意义存在着相当大的混乱。事实上，也许永远也不可能说系统内不存在作为问题的原子或分子，因此，不存在真零。 Precision and accuracy. In reporting an environmental analysis it is also necessary to specify the precision and accuracy associated with the measurements. 精确度和准确度。在做出环境分析报告时，也需要指出与测量相关的精确度和准确度。 Thus, many environmental measurements involve comparison of results obtained in different systems or under different conditions (of temperature, time, pollutant concentration, and so on) in the same system so that it is necessary to establish whether two numbers which are different are in fact indicative of （表明）different conditions. Thus (in this way, like this, 如此，这样)，很多环境测量都涉及到对于从不同系统中或从同一系统中的不同条件下（温度，时间，污染物浓度等等）获得的结果进行比较，因此有必要确定两个不同的数据（结果） 事实上代表了不同的条件。（潜台词：确定数据的精确度和准确度，精确度：体重称：0.1Kg，电子称：0.001g，准确度：误差：10－20％。体重称精确度0.1kg，误差10％。70kg标准体重的人，可能出现的测量结果：77.0kg－63.0kg，误差1％，70.7－69.3kg） State of matter. 物质状态。 In making an environmental analysis it is necessary to designate（指定） the physical form of the species（种，类） being analyzed. 在做环境分析时，必须要指定所分析的物种的物理状态。 Most simply， this involves the actual state of matter in which the species exists (whether it is solid, liquid, or gas) since many species (both inorganic and organic) may exist concurrently in different states. 最简单的办法，这包含物种存在于其中的实际状态 （是否是固体、液体或气体），因为很多物质（有机和无机）可以同时以不同的状态存在。 For example, certain organic gas can exist either as gas or adsorbed onto the surface of solid particles, and the analytical procedures employed for determination of each form are quite different. 例如，有些有机气体可以以气相存在，或者被吸附在固体颗粒的表面， 而用来分析每种形态的分析方法是极其不同的。 Element/compound distinction （单质/化合物 区分）. One of the most strongly emphasized aspects of environmental analysis involves the distinction between a chemical element and the chemical compound in which that element exists. 在环境分析中最重点强调的部分中的一个就是要对化学元素单质及有此元素的化学化合物进行区分。 It is appropriate to establish the chemical form in which a given element exists in an environmental sample rather than simply to specify the fact that the element is prent at a given concentration. 对一个环境样品中存在的元素给出其化学结构式是适当的，而不是简单的指出这个元素以多大的浓度存在这样一个事实。 While such a concept is philosophically acceptable, analytical methodology has not reached the stage where specification of inorganic compounds prent at trace levels can readily be achieved. 尽管这样的概念在理论上是可行的，但是对于无机化合物以痕量存在时，目前的分析方法还没有达到这个阶段。（有机化合物：GC，HPLC :High performance liquid chromatography，长跑筛分，吸附能力－长跑能力。 UV; 无机：UV,电子在分子轨道上跃迁发光； AAS: Atomic absorption spectrophotometer, 电子在原子轨道跃迁发光，定性：特定波长光，定量：光强度） Particle surfaces. 颗粒表面。Where pollutant species are prent in or associated with a condend pha, it is sometimes necessary to establish whether the pollutant is part of the bulk （大量的，主体） system or prent on its surface. 当污染物质以凝聚相存在或相关联时，有时，有必要确定污染物质是这个系统的一部分还是只是存在于系统的表面。 Such a consideration is particularly meaningful since material prent on the surface of an airborne particle, for example, comes into immediate contact with the external environment, whereas that（materials） which is distributed uniformly throughout the particle is effectively prent at a much lower concentration and can exert（产生） a much lower chemical intensity（强度） at the particle surface. 这样的考虑是非常有意义的，因为，例如，当物质存在于一个空中传播颗粒表面时，它会立即与外部环境相接触，而那些在颗粒表面均匀分布的物质会有效的以更低的浓度存在，并在颗粒表面产生更低的化学强度氛围。 Since airborne particles can be inhaled（呼吸）, surface predominance（优势，主导） can result in high localized（局部） concentrations of chemical species at the points of particle deposition in the lunge. 由于空中传播颗粒是可吸入的，表面优势（控制）现象可以导致在肺内颗粒沉积点位置产生较高的局部化学物质浓度。（颗粒表面的物质扩散到外部，造成颗粒表面浓度下降，而局部环境浓度升高）。 Availability.While not one of the analysis normally performed by analytical chemists, determination of the availability of a chemical species is often necessary. 尽管这（可用性分析）不是分析化学家通常所作的那种分析，但确定一个化学物质的可用性通常也是必要的（原课文注释不正确）。 To exert a meaningful (意味深长) environmental effect, a pollutant species must almost always enter solution. 产生一个有影响的环境效应，污染物质必须几乎总是要溶入到溶液中。 For instance， toxic compounds associated with airborne particles must be dissolved by lung fluids before either a local or systemic effect can be produced. 例如，与空中传播颗粒相关的毒性物质在其产生局部或系统影响之前，必须首先要被溶解于肺液中。 Thus laboratory-scale simulation of the availability characteristics of a chemical species can provide a necessary link between its prence and its eventual impact. 因此，对一化学物质所做的实验室规模的可用性特性分析可以给出其存在（浓度、形式等）与其最终影响之间的必要关联。 Environmental effect. 环境影响。The final link in the analytical/environmental effects chain involves determination of the actual environmental effect produced. 在分析/环境影响链中，最后的一环涉及到对产生的实际环境影响的确定。 In most cas, this involves some form of biological measurement or bioassay（生物鉴定，活体检定） which determines the toxicological effect upon a biological organism. 在大多数情况下，这包括一些形式的生物学测量或生物活体检定，即确定其对一生物物种的毒性影响。 Due to the expen， complexity， and time-consuming nature of bioassays, it is usual to substitute a chemical analysis for purpos of monitoring toxicological effects, and in tting standards for compliance（服从，遵从，屈服）. 由于生物活体检定昂贵，复杂，及耗时的特性， 通常用化学分析来替代以监控毒理学影响为目的的生物活体检定， 而且会设定标准以使这样的化学分析能够适用。 In doing so, however, it is necessary to establish a so-called （所谓的）do-respon relationship between the level of one or more pollutant species and the degree of toxic impact. 在如此做的时候，有必要在一个或多个污染物浓度与其毒性影响等级之间建立一个所谓的剂量/响应关系。 | |
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