风雨后的彩虹chapter5mantics语言学
语义学是对语言单位，尤其是词和句子意义的研究。
简历填写 1.“意义”的意义
G.Leech提出7种意义：概念意义，内涵意义，社会意义，感情意义，反射意义，搭配意义，主题意义。G.Leech的概念意义包括两个方面：涵义和指称。涵义和指称的区别类似内涵与外延：前者指一个实体的抽象属性，后者指拥有这些属性的具体实体。每个单词都有涵义，即概念意义，否则他们无法使用或理解，但并非每个单词都有指称。
2.指称论（命名论）：该理论把词语意义与词所指或词所代表的事物联系起来。该理论对于解释专有名词或在现实中有所指的名词时很有效。但其无法指称抽象概念。有时同一东西会有不同词语的表达。
3.概念论。代表是语义三角说。该理论认为，词和所指事物之间没有直接关系，而是以抽象的概念为中介。
4，语境论认为应该在具体语境中研究词的意义. 语境包括情景语境和上下文两种。
5.行为主义理论认为词的意义是说话者说话得情景及听话人的反应
6.意义关系
词语词之间的主要意义关系：相同关系，相反关系，包含关系
a.同义关系。完全同义关系很少，所谓的同一都依赖语境，并总在某方面不同。（方言，内涵，文体等）
b.反义关系主要包括：等级反义关系，互补反义关系，关系反义关系。
1）等级反义的特点：第一，否定一方并不必然是肯定另一方，还有中间状态；第二，没有绝对评判标准，标准随对象而改变。第三，通常用其中表示较高程度的词来覆盖整个量级。覆盖性词被称为“无标记的”，即一般性的；被覆盖词被称为“有标记的”，即特殊的。一般使用覆盖性词语。一旦使用被覆盖词语，表示有某种特殊的、不一般的情况。第四，可用very修饰，可有比较级最高级
2）互补反义关系，第一，肯定一方意味着否定另一方。反之亦然。第二，不用very修饰，没有比较级最高级。第三，评判标准绝对。没有覆盖性词语
多一个人陪伴
3）关系（反向）反义关系，表现两个实体间的一种反向关系，不构成肯否定对立。一个预设着另一个的存在。
c.上下义关系,又称意义内包关系，或类于成员的关系。上坐标词（上义词）指位于这种意义关系上位的词语；处于下位的词语叫做下义词。一个上坐标词通常有多个下义词。同上坐标词下的下义词叫做同下义词。有时，一个词可以是自己的上坐标词或下义词，这样的词叫自我下义词。上坐标词和下义词都有可能缺失。
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7.成分分析
词义并非不可分析的整体，它可以看作是不同语义特征的复合体，有比词义更小的语义单位，即所谓语义特征或语义成分。
8.句子意义关系有蕴含，预设，同义，矛盾等心里学
考点聚焦：
语义学定义；语义三角学说，Leech的七种意义类型，意义种类（传统，功能，语用）；
词汇意义关系（同义，反义，下义），识别各种实例中词与词的意义关系，以及句与句之间的蕴含，前提，会话含义，同义，不相容，语义矛盾等意义关系。用成分分析意义关系。反义词的种类及举例。
1.Semantics：a branch of linguistics which studies meaning of linguistic units, words and ntences in particular
2.Some views concerning the study of meaning
2.1.The naming theory:also called the referencial theory.The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to,or stands for.
★problems with the naming theory:1). The theory ems applicable to nouns only.2). There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world at all.3). There are nouns that do not refer to physical objects, but abstract notions.4). Some words may have different meanings in different contexts.5). The same reference may have different names. (the morning star Vs the evening star)
aning as concept:According to this view, there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to. The relationship between them is mediated by concept.
It is also called ideational theory（观念论）.
代表是：The Semantic Triangle advanced by Ogden and Richards.
Semantic Triangle was propod by Ogden and Richards.They argue that the relation between a word and the thing it refers to is not direct.It is mediated by concept.
The distinction between “n” and “reference” is comparable to that between “connotation” and “denotation”.
Sen is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form;It is abstract and de-contextualized.It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are :the word “dog” is defined as “a domesticated canine mammal,occuring in many breeds that show a great variety in size a
nd form.”This does not refer to any particular dog that exsists in the real world,but applies to any animal that meets the features described in the definition.So this is the n of the word.
Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real,phisical world;it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.If we say”The dog is barking”we must be talking about a certain dog exsistent in the situation.The word “dog” here refers to a dog known to both the speaker and the hearer.This is the reference of the word “dog ” in this particular situation.
舟过安仁的诗意 People suggest that we should study meaning in terms of n rather than reference.Why?
1)Every word has a n but not every word has : but,if,and do not refer to anything. “god,ghost,dragon” refer to imaginary things,which do not exsist in reality.
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如何清洗打印头 2) It is not convenient to explain the meaning of a word in terms of the thing it refers to.The thing a word stands for may not be at hand at the time of speaking.
3)There are cas when a reference can be expresd by more than :”Evening star” and “morning star” nearly always refers to Venus.
4)Some expressions have their reference totally dependent on context,eg:I,you she.
aning as context:is a view concerning meaning which holds that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, u, context. According to this view, one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to obrvable contexts.
Contextualism: “Contextualism” is bad on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to obrvable context:The “situational context” and the “ linguistic context”.Every utterance occurs in a particular spatio-temporal situations,as the following factors are related to the situational context:(刘书P108).The linguistic context is another aspect of contextualism.It considers the probability of of one word’s co-
occurrence or collocation with another,which forms part of the meaning,and an important factor in communication.
