A Comprehensive Bibliography of
Linguistic Steganography
Richard Bergmair
University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory,15JJ Thomson Avenue,Cambridge CB3
0FD,UK
ABSTRACT
In this paper,we will attempt to give a comprehensive bibliographic account of the work in linguistic steganography published up to date.As thefield is still in its infancy there is no widely accepted publi-cation venue.Relevant work on the subject is scattered throughout the literature on information curity, information hiding,imaging and watermarking,cryptology,and natural language processing.Bibliographic references within thefield are very spar.This makes literature rearch on linguistic steganography a tedious task and a comprehensive bibliography a valuable aid to the rearcher.
Keywords:comprehensive bibliography,linguistic,natural language,steganography,steganalysis,informa-tion hiding,watermarking
1.MOTIV ATION
Linguistic steganography is,as a rearch area,still in its infancy,with an average of only4.5publications appearing per year since2001.Nevertheless,thefield ems to be gaining attention lately as rearch groups around the world independently discover linguistic steganography as a relevant area of study(the numbers in Figure1em to support this,although the small volume of publications naturally doesn’t allow for any significant statistics).
There is no single widely accepted publication venue for this highly interdisciplinary subject,which is why relevant contributions are scattered throughout publication venues of information curity,information hiding,imaging and watermarking,cryptology,and natural language processing.Another problem is that thefield does not have an agreed upon name which could rve as an index into the literature.A Google arch for‘linguistic steganography’,for example,will only return a very small fraction of the relevant work.
This makes literature arch in linguistic steganography a tedious task and conquently contributes
to the cost of independent discovery and improper attribution of results.Although there are at least8rearch groups that have repeatedly published on linguistic steganography,only two of them are routinely cited by others,while the bulk of the36papers we have identified is never cited at all.This,of cour,applies to all scientific publications,but one might argue that the situation is particularly counterproductive for a young field like linguistic steganography.
Therefore we have compiled,in this paper,what we hope to be a comprehensive account of the literature in linguistic steganography indexed as of November2006.The bibliography resides on mantilog. ucam/biblingsteg/and is available in BibTeX and PDF formats.With the help of the community, we hope to keep it up to date and relevant.
Author e-mail rbergmair@acm,web richard.bergmair.eu/;
This bibliography resides at mantilog.ucam/biblingsteg/
199211
199511
199722
199911
200132
200232
200322
200465
200532
200695
(2007)(4)(3)
Figure1.Number of publications on linguistic steganography per year.(Rightmost column disregards publications published by the most active group)
2.METHODOLOGICAL REMARKS
Under our interpretation of the term,linguistic steganography excludes techniques that directly operate on typet or written text as a graphic,or speech as a waveform.It also excludes techniques that rely on specificfile formats such as ASCII or HTML.
This bibliography is divided into three ctions.The primary bibliography gives pointers into the litera-ture directly dealing with linguistic steganography,the related bibliography contains literature about more remotely connected subjects,and the implemented systems ction lists software prototypes.
科学小实验The primary bibliography is grouped by rearch collaborations.The order in which they are listed has no particular significance.Within each group,references are sorted in chronological order.
In order to bootstrap a process of community collaboration on keeping this bibliography relevant and up to date,the following material was collected in an extensive and systematic literature arch carried out in March2005and reiterated in November2006.The sources that were arched included the English and German web as perceived by Yahoo,MSN Search,Google,Google Scholar,CiteSeer,and the meta arch engine Copernic Agent Pro,as well as the computing literature as indexed in the ACM Guide,the ACM Digital Library and IEEExplore.
3.CALL FOR COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION
This bibliography will be updated and maintained on mantilog.ucam/biblingsteg/.The maintainer invites the participation of the whole community in keeping this resource relevant and up to date and will gratefully incorporate any suggestions brought to his attention by contacting the maintainer via e-mail at biblingsteg@mantilog.ucam.
•If you spot any omissions in this bibliography,plea bring it to the maintainer’s attention,preferably by emailing a BibTeXfile including abstracts.
•If you are an author or editor publishing new material on linguistic steganography,plea bring it to the maintainer’s attention,preferably by emailing a BibTeXfile including abstracts.
•If you are maintaining a personal webpage of a rearcher in linguistic steganography or any other webpage related to work in linguistic steganography,plea nd a link to your webpage to the main-tainer and add a link to mantilog.ucam/biblingsteg/to your own webpage.This will help arch engines produce more relevant results for queries related to linguistic steganography.
PRIMARY BIBLIOGRAPHY
Peter Wayner
1.P.Wayner,“Mimic functions,”Cryptologia XVI,pp.193–214,July199
2.
2.P.Wayner,“Strong theoretical steganography,”Cryptologia XIX,pp.285–299,July1995.
Purdue CERIAS
3.M.J.Atallah,V.Raskin,M.Crogan,C.Hempelmann,F.Kerschbaum,D.Mohamed,and S.Naik,
“Natural language watermarking:Design,analysis,and a proof-of-concept implementation,”in In-formation Hiding:Fourth International Workshop,I.S.Moskowitz,ed.,Lecture Notes in Computer Science2137,pp.185–199,Springer,April2001.
4.M.J.Atallah,V.Raskin,C.F.Hempelmann,M.Karahan,R.Sion,U.Topkara,and K.E.Triezenberg,
“Natural language watermarking and tamperproofing,”in Information Hiding:Fifth International Workshop,F.A.P.Petitcolas,ed.,Lecture Notes in Computer Science2578,pp.196–212,Springer, October2002.
5.K.Bennett,“Linguistic steganography:Survey,analysis,and robustness concerns for hiding information
意兴索然in text,”Tech.Rep.TR2004-13,Purdue CERIAS,May2004.
6.M.Topkara,C.M.Taskiran,and E.J.Delp,“Natural language watermarking,”in Proceedings of the
SPIE International Conference on Security,Steganography,and Watermarking of Multimedia Contents,
E.J.Delp and P.W.Wong,eds.,5681,January2005.
7.C.M.Taskiran,U.Topkara,M.Topkara,and E.J.Delp,“Attacks on lexical natural language steganog-
raphy systems,”in Proceedings of the SPIE International Conference on Security,Steganography,and Watermarking of Multimedia Contents,January2006.
8.M.Topkara,G.Riccardi,D.Hakkani-Tur,and M.J.Atallah,“Natural language watermarking:Chal-
lenges in building a practical system,”in Proceedings of the SPIE International Conference on Security, Steganography,and Watermarking of Multimedia Contents,January2006.
9.U.Topkara,M.Topkara,and M.J.Atallah,“The hiding virtues of ambiguity:quantifiably resilient
watermarking of natural language text through synonym substitutions,”in MM&Sec’06:Proceeding of the8th workshop on Multimedia and curity,pp.164–174,ACM Press,(New York,NY,USA),2006.
10.M.Topkara,U.Topkara,and M.J.Atallah,“Words are not enough:Sentence level natural language
watermarking,”in Proceedings of the ACM Workshop on Content Protection and Security(in conjuction with ACM Multimedia),October2006.
11.M.Topkara,U.Topkara,and M.J.Atallah,“Information hiding through errors:A confusing approach,”
in Proceedings of the SPIE International Conference on Security,Steganography,and Watermarking of Multimedia Contents,January2007.
Grothoffet al.
12.C.Grothoff,K.Grothoff,L.Alkhutova,R.Stutsman,and M.Atallah,“Translation-bad steganogra-
phy,”Tech.Rep.TR2005-39,Purdue CERIAS,2005.
13.C.Grothoff,K.Grothoff,L.Alkhutova,R.Stutsman,and M.Atallah,“Translation-bad steganogra-
phy,”in Proceedings of Information Hiding Workshop(IH2005),pp.213–233,Springer,2005.
14.R.Stutsman,M.Atallah,C.Grothoff,and K.Grothoff,“Lost in just the translation,”in Proceedings
of the21st Annual ACM Symposium on Applied Computing(SAC2006),April2006.
Chapman et al.
15.M.T.Chapman,“Hiding the hidden:A software system for concealing ciphertext as innocuous text,”
Master’s thesis,University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee,May1997.
16.M.T.Chapman and G.I.Davida,“Hiding the hidden:A software system for concealing ciphertext as
innocuous text,”in Information and Communications Security:First International Conference,O.S.Q.
Yongfei Han Tatsuaki,ed.,Lecture Notes in Computer Science1334,Springer,August1997.
17.M.T.Chapman,G.I.Davida,and M.Rennhard,“A practical and effective approach to large-scale
automated linguistic steganography,”in Information Security:Fourth International Conference,G.I.
Davida and Y.Frankel,eds.,Lecture Notes in Computer Science2200,p.156ff,Springer,October2001.
18.M.T.Chapman and G.I.Davida,“Plausible deniability using automated linguistic steganography,”in
Infrastructure Security:International Conference,G.I.Davida and Y.Frankel,eds.,Lecture Notes in Computer Science2437,pp.276–287,Springer,October2002.
Richard Bergmair
19.R.Bergmair,“Towards linguistic steganography:A systematic investigation of approaches,systems,
and issues.”final year thesis,April2004.handed in in partial fulfillment of the degree requirements for the degree“B.Sc.(Hons.)in Computer Studies”to the University of Derby.
20.R.Bergmair,“Natural language steganography and an“ai-complete”curity primitive.”talk,Decem-
ber2004.talk held at the21st Chaos Communication Congress.
信息培训
Bolshakov et al.
21.I.A.Bolshakov,“A method of linguistic steganography bad on collocationally-verified synonymy.,”
in Information Hiding:6th International Workshop,J.J.Fridrich,ed.,Lecture Notes in Computer Science3200,pp.180–191,Springer,May2004.
22.H.Calvo and I.A.Bolshakov,“Using lectional preferences for extending a synonymous paraphras-
ing method in steganography,”in Avances en Ciencias de la Computacion e Ingenieria de Computo -CIC’2004:XIII Congreso Internacional de Computacion,J.H.S.Azuela,ed.,pp.231–242,Octo-ber2004.
Murphy et al.
23.B.Murphy,“The syntax of concealment:reliable methods for plain text information hiding,”in Proceed-
ings of the SPIE International Conference on Security,Steganography,and Watermarking of Multimedia Contents,January2007.
24.B.Murphy and C.Vogel,“Statistically constrained shallow text marking:techniques,evaluation段段
paradigm,and results,”in Proceedings of the SPIE International Conference on Security,Steganog-raphy,and Watermarking of Multimedia Contents,January2007.
Meral et al.
25.H.M.Meral,B.Sankur,and A.S.Ozsoy,“Watermarking tools for turkish texts,”in Proceedings of
the14th IEEE Conference on Signal Processing and Communications Applications,pp.1–4,IEEE, April2006.
26.H.M.Meral,B.Sankur,and S.Ozsoy,“Syntactic tools for natural language watermarking,”in Proceed-
ings of the SPIE International Conference on Security,Steganography,and Watermarking of Multimedia Contents,January2007.
Others
27.K.Winstein,“Lexical steganography through adaptive modulation of the word choice hash,”Jan-
uary1999.Was disminated during condary education at the Illinois Mathematics and Science Academy.The paper won the third prize in the2000Intel Science Talent Search.
28.H.Nakagawa,K.Sampei,T.Matsumoto,S.Kawaguchi,K.Makino,and I.Mura,“Text information
hiding with prerved meaning–a ca for japane documents,”IPSJ Transaction42(9),pp.2339–iginally published in Japane.A similar paper was disminated by thefirst author in English and is kept available for download dl.itc.u-tokyo.ac.jp/nakagawa/academic-res/finpri02.pdf.
29.A.J.Tenenbaum,“Linguistic steganography:Passing covert data using text-bad mimicry.”final year
thesis,April2002.submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of“Bachelor of Applied Science”to the University of Toronto.
30.M.Niimi,S.Minewaki,H.Noda,and E.Kawaguchi,“A framework of text-bad steganography using
sd-form mantics model,”IPSJ Journal44,August2003.
31.Y.-L.Chiang,L.-P.Chang,W.-T.Hsieh,and W.-C.Chen,“Natural language watermarking using
mantic substitution for chine text,”in Digital Watermarking:Second International Workshop, IWD
W2003,T.Kalker,I.J.Cox,and Y.M.Ro,eds.,Lecture Notes in Computer Science2939, pp.129–140,Springer,October2003.
热闹近义词
32.X.Sun,G.Luo,and H.Huang,“Component-bad digital watermarking of chine texts,”in InfoSecu
我的文具盒’04:Proceedings of the3rd international conference on Information curity,pp.76–81,ACM Press, 2004.
33.O.Uzuner,“Natural language processing with linguistic information for digitalfingerprinting and wa-
termarking,”in Proceedings of the SPIE International Conference on Security,Steganography,and Watermarking of Multimedia Contents,January2006.
34.V.Chand and C.O.Orgun,“Exploiting linguistic features in lexical steganography:Design and proof-
看不见你的笑of-concept implementation,”in Proceedings of the39th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences(HICSS’06),6,p.126b,IEEE,January2006.
35.M.H.Shirali-Shahreza and M.Shirali-Shahreza,“A new approach to persian/arabic text steganogra-
phy,”in Proceedings of the5th IEEE/ACIS International Conference on Computer and Information Science,pp.310–315,IEEE Computer Society,(Washington,DC,USA),2006.
36.B.Macq and O.Vybornova,“A method of text watermarking using presuppositions,”in Proceedings
of the SPIE International Conference on Security,Steganography,and Watermarking of Multimedia Contents,January2007.
RELATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
37.M.J.Atallah, C.J.McDonough,V.Raskin,and S.Nirenburg,“Natural language processing for
information assurance and curity:an overview and implementations,”in NSPW’00:Proceedings of the2000workshop on New curity paradigms,M.E.Zurko and S.J.Greenwald,eds.,pp.51–65,ACM Press,September2000.
38.V.Raskin,C.F.Hempelmann,K.E.Triezenberg,and S.Nirenburg,“Ontology in information cu-
rity:a uful theoretical foundation and methodological tool,”in NSPW’01:Proceedings of the2001 workshop on New curity paradigms,V.Raskin and S.J.Greenwald,eds.,pp.53–59,ACM Press, September2001.
39.P.Wayner,Disappearing Cryptography–Information Hiding:Steganography&Watermarking,Morgan
晚秋歌词Kaufmann Publishers,Los Altos,CA94022,USA,cond ed.,2002.Chapters6and7rve as good introductions to mimic functions.
40.I.A.Bolshakov and A.Gelbukh,“Synonymous paraphrasing using wordnet and internet,”in Natural
Language Processing and Information Systems:9th International Conference on Applications of Natural Language to Information Systems,NLDB2004,F.Meziane and E.E.Metais,eds.,Lecture Notes in Computer Science3136,pp.312–323,Springer,June2004.
41.R.Bergmair and S.Katzenbeisr,“Towards human interactive proofs in the text-domain,”in Pro-
ceedings of the7th Information Security Conference,K.Zhang and Y.Zheng,eds.,Lecture Notes in Computer Science3225,pp.257–267,Springer Verlag,September2004.
42.R.Bergmair and S.Katzenbeisr,“Content-aware steganography:About lazy prisoners and narrow-
minded wardens,”Tech.Rep.fki-252-05,Technische Universit¨a t M¨u nchen,Institut f¨u r Informatik AI/Cognition Group,Dec.2005.
43.R.Bergmair and S.Katzenbeisr,“Content-aware steganography:About lazy prisoners and narrow-
minded wardens,”in Proceedings of the8th Information Hiding Workshop,Lecture Notes in Computer Science,Springer Verlag,2006.in print.
IMPLEMENTED SYSTEMS
44.J.Walker,“Steganosaurus.”circulating on the web,December1994.www.fourmilab.ch/
stego/,accesd2005-03-25.
45.K.Maher,“Texto.”circulating on the web,/crypto/soft/texto.
zip,accesd2005-03-22.
46.M.T.Chapman and G.I.Davida,“Nicetext.”Website,August1997./,
accesd2005-03-09.
47.P.Wayner,“Mimicry applet.”Website,August1997.www.wayner/texts/mimic/,ac-
cesd2004-04-12.
48.K.Winstein,“Tyrannosaurus lex.”Website,January1999.alumni.imsa.edu/∼keithw/
tlex/,accesd2005-03-09.
49.S.E.Hugg,“Stegparty.”Website,November1999./hugg/projects/
stegparty.html,accesd2005-03-25.
50.D.McKellar,“Spammimic.”Website,June2000./,accesd2004-04-12.
51.P.Shields,“Stegano.”circulating on the id/∼paul/crypto/
natlang/stegano-1.,accesd2005-03-25.
52.M.Zalewski,“snowdrop.”freshmeat entry,September2002.freshmeat/projects/
snowdrop/,accesd2005-03-20.
53.“Texthide.”/,accesd2005-03-20.
54.“Textsign.”Website.accesd2005-03-20.
