Critical realism 家常杂酱面批判现实主义
In the philosophy of perception, critical realism is the theory that some of our n-data (for example, tho of primary qualities) can and do accurately reprent external objects, properties, and events, while other of our n-data (for example, tho of 表达的英文condary qualities and perceptual illusions) do not accurately reprent any external objects, properties, and events.
Critical realism refers to veral schools of thought. The include the American critical realists (Roy Wood Sellars, George Santayana, and Arthur Lovejoy) and a broader movement including Bertrand Rusll and C. D. Broad.[citation needed] The Canadian Jesuit Bernard Lonergan developed a comprehensive critical realist philosophy and this understanding of critical realism dominates North America's Catholic Universities. In the UK, critical realism generally refers to a philosophical approach to the social and natural world - Roy Bhaskar's work is particularly well associated with this approach. The term is also ud by veral people in the science-religion interface community.
American critical realism
The American critical realist movement was a respon both to direct realism (especially in its recent incarnation as new realism), as well as to idealism and pragmatism. In very broad terms, American critical realism was a form of reprentative realism, in which there are objects that stand as mediators between independent real objects and perceivers.拮据什么意思
One innovation was that the mediators aren't ideas (British empiricism), but properties, esnces, or "character complexes."
神奇的拼音British realism
Similar developments occurred in Britain. Major figures included Samuel Alexander, John Cook Wilson, H. A. Prichard, H. H. Price, and C. D. Broad.
Contemporary critical realism
General philosophy
景山公园景点介绍
Critical realism is prently most commonly associated with the work of Roy Bhaskar. Bhaskar developed a general philosophy of science that he described as transcendental realism, and a special philosophy of the human sciences that he called critical naturalism. The two terms were combined by other authors to form the umbrella term critical realism.
Transcendental realism attempts to establish that in order for scientific investigation to take place, the object of that investigation must have real, manipulable, internal mechanisms that can be actualid to produce particular outcomes. This is what we do when we conduct experiments. This stands in contrast to empiricist scientists' claim that all scientists can do is obrve the relationship between cau and effect. Whilst empiricism, and positivism more generally, locate causal relationships at the level of events, Critical Realism locates them at the level of the generative mechanism, arguing that causal relationships are irreducible to empirical constant conjunctions of David Hume's doctrine; in other words, a constant conjunctive relationship between events is neither sufficient nor even necessary to establish a causal relationship.
The implication of this is that science should be understood as an ongoing process in which scientists improve the concepts they u to understand the mechanisms that they study. It should not, in contrast to the claim of empiricists, be about the identification of a coincidence between a postulated independent variable and dependent variable. Positivism/falsification are also rejected due to the obrvation that it is highly plausible that a mechanism will exist but either a) go unactivated, b) be activated, but not perceived, or c) be activated, but counteracted by other mechanisms, which results in it having unpredictable effects. Thus, non-realisation of a posited mechanism cannot (in contrast to the claim of positivists) be taken to signify its non-existence.
Critical naturalism argues that the transcendental realist model of science is equally applicable to both the physical and the human worlds. However, when we study the human world we are studying something fundamentally different from the physical world and must therefore adapt our strategy to studying it. Critical naturalism therefore prescribes social scientific method which eks to identify the mechanisms producing social events, but with a recognition that the are in a much greater state of flux than the
y are in the physical world (as human structures change much more readily than tho of, say, a leaf). In particular, we must understand that human agency is made possible by social structures that themlves require the reproduction of certain actions/pre-conditions. Further, the individuals that inhabit the social structures are capable of consciously reflecting upon, and changing, the actions that produce them—a practice that is in part facilitated by social scientific rearch.
Critical realism has become an influential movement in British sociology and social science in general as a reaction to, and reconsilation of, so-called "postmodern" critiques.
Developments
Since Bhaskar made the first big steps in popularising the theory of critical realism in the 1970s, it has become one of the major strands of social scientific method - rivalling positivism/empiricism, and post-structuralism/relativism/interpretivism.
An edited volume, Critical Realism: Esntial Readings, is currently the most appreciated and available reader in critical realism.
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There is also a Journal of Critical Realism, which publishes articles on the theory and results of the practice of critical realist social science. See also, Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, published by Blackwell, which also publishes theoretical and empirical realist social science.
