ORIGINAL RESEARCH
published:26March2015 doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00324
Edited by:
Sue Llewellyn, University of Manchester,UK
Reviewed by:
Armando D’Agostino, Universitàdegli Studi di Milano,Italy
Josie Malinowski, University of Bedfordshire,UK
*Correspondence: Dalena van Heugten–van der Kloet, Sleep and Circadian Neuroscience Institute,Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences,University of Oxford,Level6West Wing,John
Radcliffe Hospital,Headley Way,
Oxford OX39DU,UK dalena.ac.uk
Specialty ction: This article was submitted to Psychopathology,a ction of the journal Frontiers in Psychology
Received:18December2014
Accepted:06March2015
Published:26March2015
Citation: van Heugten–van der Kloet D, Cosgrave J,Merckelbach H,Haines R,Golodetz S and Lynn SJ(2015)
Imagining the impossible before
breakfast:the relation between creativity,dissociation,and sleep.
Front.Psychol.6:324.
doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00324Imagining the impossible before breakfast:the relation between creativity,dissociation,and sleep
Dalena van Heugten–van der Kloet1*,Jan Cosgrave1,Harald Merckelbach2,
Ross Haines3,Stuart Golodetz4and Steven Jay Lynn5
1Sleep and Circadian Neuroscience Institute,Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences,University of Oxford,Oxford, UK,2Forensic Psychology Section,Department of Clinical and Psychological Science,Maastricht University,Maastricht, Netherlands,3Department of Statistics,University of Oxford,Oxford,UK,4Oxford Smart Specs Group,Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences,University of Oxford,Oxford,UK,5Laboratory of Consciousness and Cognition,Department of Psychology,Binghamton University,State University of New York,Binghamton,NY,USA
Dissociative symptoms have been related to higher rapid eye movement sleep density, a sleep pha during which hyperassociativity may occur.This may enhance artistic creativity during the day.To test this hypothesis,we conducted a creative photo contest to explore the relation between dissociation,sleep,and creativity.During the contest, participants(N=72)took one photo per day forfive concutive days,bad on specific daily themes(consisting of single words)and the instruction to take as creative a photo as possible each day.Furthermore,they completed daily measures of state d
issociation and a short sleep diary.The photos and their captions were ranked by two professional photographers and two clinical psychologists bad on creativity,originality, bizarreness,and quality.We expected that dissociative people would rank higher in the contest compared with low-dissociative participants,and that the most original photos would be taken on days when the participants scored highest on acute dissociation. We found that acute dissociation predicted a higher ranking on creativity.Poorer sleep quality and fewer hours of sleep predicted more bizarreness in the photos and captions. None of the trait measures could predict creativity.In sum,acute dissociation related to enhanced creativity.Thefindings contribute to our understanding of dissociative symptomatology.
辽阔天空Keywords:dissociation,creativity,dreaming,photography,hyperassociativity
Introduction
Dissociative symptoms are notorious for their enigmatic nature and include phenomena that encompass excessive daydreaming,memory problems,vere abntmindedness,and impair-ments,and discontinuities in perceptions of the lf,identity,and the environment(Bernstein and Putnam,1986).Mild dissociative symptoms,related to absorption,and occasional experiences of depe
rsonalization,are not uncommon in the general population,but relatively rare disorders such as dissociative identity disorder and dissociative amnesia reprent vere manifestations of psychopathology(Lynn et al.,2012).
Recent studies have linked dissociative symptoms to vivid dreaming,nightmares,and other unusual sleep experiences(Van der Kloet et al.,2012;Van Heugten–Van der Kloet et al., 2013,2014).However,the famous19th century British neurologist Hughlings Jackson was the
first to view dissociation as the uncoupling of normal con-sciousness,which results in what he termed’the dreamy state’(Meares,1999).Interestingly,a century later,Levitan(1967,p. 157)hypothesized that“depersonalization is a compromi state between dreaming and waking.”
Previous rearch has addresd the connection between dis-sociative symptoms and sleep disturbances.For example,in a recent study(Van Der Kloet et al.,2013),we assayed dissociative symptoms and EEG sleep parameters and found that lengthening of rapid eye movement(REM)sleep predicts dissociative symp-toms.Germane to thisfinding is the idea that the progression of waking state to REM sleep is marked by an increa in“fluid”and hyperassociative thinking(Stickgold et al.,2001),which is a type of mentation also obrved in certain dissociative individuals (Van Heugten–Van der Kloet et al.,2013;Lynn et al.,2014).
Rapid eye movement sleep is marked by an increa in cholin-ergic transmission,similar to wakefulness.At the same time, noradrenergicfiring is inhibited during REM sleep,whereas all modulatory neurons slow down but keepfiring during non-REM sleep.Accordingly,REM sleep appears to be an ideal state for hyperassociative connections to be made during dreaming. Waking consciousness involves many types of cognitions,such as daydreaming and mind wandering,which in excess could be considered dissociative in nature,(e.g.,Foulkes and Fleisher, 1975).Domhoff(2011)describes the cognitions as the‘default network’of waking ,mental activity when we are not focusing our thoughts).Hartmann(2010)and Montangero (2012)have argued that thought across the sleep–wake cycle should be regarded as a continuum,with typical dreaming on the one end,focud waking thought on the other end,and day-dreaming and mind wandering in between(e Figure1).Indeed, Solms(1999)argued that“Mental state is a constantly negotiated compromi between the poles of waking(...)and dreaming.”
Waking and dreaming consciousness could be viewed as a continuum with experiences such as dissociation and lucid dreaming conceptualized in the middle range.Kahan and LaBerge(1996,2011)and Kahan et al.(1997)have shown that while there is a reduction in volition in dreaming compared to waking cognition,other properties of thought such as reflec-tive awareness ar
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e no more prent in waking thought than dreaming.Thus,waking consciousness is capable of the associa-tive thinking thought to be typical of dreaming,and dreaming is capable of the directed and reflexive thinking thought to be typical of waking cognition.We suggest that sleep disturbance could‘push’waking consiousness more toward the‘dreaming’end of the continuum,fostering less linear,and highly associa-tive thinking during waking(e Figure1).Indeed,looning of associations and lack of insight are considered to be key elements of schizophrenia(Bleuler et al.,1911/1950;Carroll et al.,1999). Thisfits well with Hobson’s(2002)view of differentation between waking and dreaming as“a constantly negotiated compromi”(Hobson,2002,p.102).
Llewellyn(2011)has advanced an intriguing theory which posits that a progressive de-differentation of wake and dream states of consciousness eventually results in schizophrenia. Becau of the differences in neuromodulatory systems between waking and dreaming,the lf and the world during dreaming appear to differ from during waking.The perceived world dur-ing waking depends on making n of external nsory input, which engenders a strong n of external reality in which the ‘lf and its inner-world’exists.In contrast,the world during dreaming makes less distinction between subjectivity and objec-tivity.A lf-organizing system allows for the lf and the world in both states to be integrated.Accordingly,when a degree of loss of this lf-organization occurs,de-different
ation of the waking and dreaming states may ensue,fostering a perception of loss of lf,as occurs during episodes of depersonalization.
Creativity involves the understanding of novel ideas and rela-tions;originality andflexibility are two key features of creativ-ity.Chakravarty(2010)suggests that for creativity to occur,
we
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FIGURE1|Consciousness across the sleep-wake cycle depicted as a continuum.Sleep loss or sleep disturbances may‘push’sleep mentation more toward the waking end of the continuum,fostering less linear thinking and the perception of a loss of lf during wake,tting the stage for dissociative symptoms.
need to be able to engage in divergent thinking,novelty ek-ing behavior,and suppress latent inhibition to some extent.Most importantly,a creative brain is highly interconnected(both inter-and intrahemispherically),with divergent thinking promoting more connections to be forged through development of new synaps.Relatedly,Faust-Socher et al.(2014)found enhanced creative thinking under dopaminergic therapy in patients with Parkinson’s dia.They propod that dopamine reduced latent inhibition,thereby enhancing creativity by looning the associa-tive networks(Faust-Socher et al.,2014).Furthermore,Walker et al.(2002)obrved that subjects who were awakened from REM sleep displayed more cognitiveflexibility(a32%advantage), as measured by the number of anagram puzzles solved,than tho awakened from NREM sleep.
胡椒病Rapid eye movement sleep may po as an ideal state to facilitate creative thinking,with mild frontal
dysfunction and high interconnectness through associative networks.We sug-gest that in highly dissociative people who experience more vivid dreams and other unusual sleep experiences(Van der Kloet et al.,2012),associative and less linear thinking could occur more frequently during waking consciousness,facilitat-ing the emergence of creativity during waking consciousness. Moreover,our rearch indicates that dissociative symptoms are cloly related to fantasy proneness(Rauschenberg and Lynn,1995;Merckelbach et al.,1999;Van der Kloet et al., 2012),a generally benign trait characterized by deep,pro-found,and longstanding involvements in fantasy and imagery. The connection between vivid dreaming,fantasy proneness, and dissociation implies that creativity might be a personality trait strongly related to the constructs.Nevertheless,scien-tific reports on the association between creativity and disso-ciation are scarce(but e Perez-Fabello and Campos,2011; Thomson and Jaque,2012).Accordingly,an important goal of the prent study is to examine the relation of creativity and dissociation.
女性泌尿系统One difficulty in testing the conceptual overlap between dis-sociative symptoms,fantasy proneness,and creativity is the potential bias introduced by the tendency to overendor atypi-cal answer options.That is,the constructs might correlate not becau they are inherently related but becau their overlap is the spurious result of overendorment(Merckelbach et al.,2014). To circum
vent this problem,in the prent study we assd creativity independent of lf-reports.More specifically,we con-ducted a creative photo contest and asked participants to take 5photos on5days that conformed to a designated theme.We cho the photo task rather than a divergent thinking , anagram solving),as the former task would be more congruent with the visual nature of dreaming.We invited professional pho-tographers and two clinical psychologists to rate the photos on creativity,originality,bizarreness,and quality.We hypothesized that:(1)highly dissociative people will rank higher in the contest than low-dissociative participants;(2)the most original photos will be taken on days in which the participant scored highest in acute dissociation;(3)unusual content of the photo or descrip-tion will be more cloly related to higher than lower dissociation levels;and(4)lower sleep quality(SQ)and more dream recall will be related to higher rankings on dissociation.Materials and Methods
Participants and Procedure男人吃什么
着落怎么读Ninety two participants(55women)were recruited via local email and poster advertiments.Inclusion criteria entailed an age of18years and older,proficiency in the English language,and access to either a camera or a mobile phone with camera function.
First,participants completed a baline screening(e Measures)and were asked to compete in a photo contest.During the contest,they took1photo each day with a specific theme,for 5concutive days.Each morning,they received an e-mail with the assignment for that day.The assignments of the5days were always one word(day1:three;day2:green;day3:freedom;day 4:desire;day5:home).Participants uploaded their photo via a password-protected website with a short description to accom-pany it.The assignment was to take a photo as creative as possible, adhering to the theme.The quality of the photo or the camera, or their professional technique was not important for the com-petition.Participants also completed the Clinician-Administered Dissociative States Scale(CADSS)and a short sleep diary every day in the morning(e Measures).
Next,the photos were ranked by two professional photogra-phers and two clinical psychologists bad on creativity,origi-nality,and professional technique.We created an online photo ranking system that allowed the judges to view all of the photos for a particular day and rank them in a single ssion.The web site prented a viewing area to show the current photo and con-trols that permitted the judges to rate the photo or switch to the previous/next photo in the quence.A thumbnail view was also prented to allow quick jumps to other photos in the quence for comparison purpos.
The judges rated all photos on a scale between0(least cre-ative)and10(most creative).They were asked to briefly view all submissionsfirst,and then to rate each photo relative to all the other photos.They rated at least1photo with a grade of0and1 photo with a grade of10,and all other photos were scored with a grade in between,which produced a ranked list.The photos and their captions were also ranked on the basis of unusual con-tent by the two clinical psychologists,who were lected as judges due to their specialties in imagery rehearsal and fantasy prone-ness.The participants with the most creative photos on most days won a prize(first prize:£250Amazon voucher;cond prize:£50 Amazon voucher)and their photos will be published in the uni-versity newsletter and other media sources.Only the creativity ranking of the photos determined the winner of the contest.
This study was conducted according to the code of ethics on human experimentation established by the Declaration of Helsinki(1964)and amended in Seoul(2008).Approval for the study was obtained from the Medical Sciences Inter Divisional Rearch Ethics Committee of the University of Oxford(MSD-IDREC-C1-2014-068).
Measures
Dissociative Experiences Scale II(DES;Cronbach’sα=0.94;allα’s from current study).The DES-II(Bernstein and Putnam,1986; Bernstein-Carlson and Putnam,1993)is a lf-report scale of trait dissociation.Participants indicate on100mm visual analog scales
(anchors:0=never;100=always)to what extent they experi-ence28dissociative experiences in daily life.Van IJzendoorn and Schuengel(1996)provide meta-analytic evidence for the sound psychometric properties of the DES.
Iowa Sleep Experiences Survey(ISES;Cronbach’sα=0.87). The18-item ISES(Watson,2001)asss the frequency of var-ious sleep-and dream-related experiences,which are rated on a7-point scale(anchors:1=never,7=veral times a week). The ISES consists of two subscales that measure general sleep experiences and lucid dreaming.It posss acceptable internal consistency(coefficientα=0.85;Watson,2001).
Gough Creative Personality Scale(CPS;Cronbach’sα=0.67). The CPS(Gough,1979)is a lf-report measure of creativity.It consists ,capable,humorous,inventive)and the participant is asked to tick all the lf-descriptive adjectives. Specific items reflect higher creativity,with higher total scores indicating greater creativity.Kaduson and Schaefer(1991)have reported on the high concurrent validity of the CPS.
Creative Experiences Questionnaire(CEQ;Cronbach’s α=0.82;Merckelbach et al.,2001).The25-item CEQ mea-sures fantasy proneness.The yes/no items tap daydreaming, inten fantasies,and imagination.The items were derived from ca vignettes on fantasy proneness provided by Wilson and Barber(1983).Illustrative items are“I spent more than half of the day on fantasizing or daydreaming”and“Many of my fantasies are as vivid as a good movie.”A total CEQ score is obtained by summing the items endord.Merckelbach et al.(2001)found adequate test–retest reliability and internal consistency.
Clinician-Administered Dissociative States Scale(Cronbach’s α=0.91−0.94).The27-item CADSS(Bremner et al.,1998)is compod of19subject-rated items and eight oberver-scored items.Items are scored on a5-point scale(0=not at all, 4=extremely).Bremner et al.(1998)found the CADSS to be a highly reliable and valid instrument to measure prent-state dis-sociative symptoms.In the current study,we administered only the lf-report items.
The sleep diary is a lf-report instrument1that examines sleep patterns,adapted from the Connsus Sleep Diary(Carney et al., 2012),and contains questions about sleep ,time of
1A copy of this instrument can be obtained from thefirst author.lights out,number of awakenings during the night,time offinal awakening,and time out of bed),and dream occurrence.We computed sleep pattern variables as follows:SQ was defined as the proportion of time asleep during the sleep period,calculated as the total sleep time divided by the time spent in bed,multiplied by 100.We also computed the average hours of sleep per night across the5days(HS).Participants completed the items every morning. Sleep diaries are a commonly ud and valid means of collecting data regarding daily activities and sleep perceptions(Cheek et al., 2004).
Data Analysis
Statistical analys were performed within the R statistical envi-ronment(R Core Team,2013).Cronbach’sαvalues were cal-culated to estimate internal consistency of the baline and state measures.Pearson product-moment correlations between baline and state measures were calculated.State and trait data were analyzed using mixed-effects models and regression analys.
Results
Descriptives
Of the92participants,72participants(55women;15men;2 unreported)completed all asssments on all days and submit-ted all5photos.Their mean age was35.8years(SD=16.9) and mean level of experience with photography was rated as4.8(SD= 1.8)out of a maximum score of8,indicat-ing that participants were interested in photography and reg-ularly took photographs.A majority reported owning a dig-ital bridge or single lens reflex camera,having some under-standing of basic camera controls(shutter speed,aperture, ISO etc.),and using the controls to photograph interest-ing objects and experiences.The majority of participants were thinking about taking up photography as a hobby or inter-est.During the study,they displayed a mean level of moti-vation of3.6(SD=1.1)on a5-point Likert scale ranging from1(“Not motivated at all”)to5(“Very motivated”).They slept an average of7.2h(SD=1.5)per night during the 5day study period.Table1displays mean scores and Pearson product-moment correlations of the trait and state variables.
TABLE1|Mean scores(SD)and Pearson product-moment correlations of trait and state variables(N=72).
Mean(SD)DES ISES CEQ CPS
DES13.68(11.48)––––
ISES35.11(17.00)0.54∗–––
CEQ9.37(4.98)0.73∗0.45∗––
CPS12.57(2.72)0.31∗0.060.41∗–
CADSS0.28(0.42)0.63to0.75∗0.40to0.53∗0.47to0.59∗0.21to0.35∗SQ 2.88(0.72)−0.15to−0.23−0.31to−0.19∗−0.20to−0.05−0.14to0.01 HS7.2(1.5)−0.16to0.070.01−0.20−0.26to0.10∗−0.22to−0.02 DES,Dissociative Experiences Scale;ISES,Iowa Sleep Experiences Survey;CEQ,Creative Experiences Questionnaire;CPS,Gough’s Creative Personality Scale;CADSS, Clinician-Administered Dissociative States Scale;SQ,average sleep quality across the5days;HS,average hours of sleep per night across the5days.Correlations of state measures displayed in table are ranging from day1to day5.∗p<0.05,∗some p’s<0.05.
We found strong correlations among the trait measures of dissociation,unusual sleep experiences,fantasy proneness,and creative personality.
Relations Between Creativity and Trait and State Measures
The judgment panel ranked all the photos of the 5days bad on creativity,originality,bizarreness,and
quality in adherence to the specific theme of each day.Scores were normally dis-tributed for all raters.Internal reliability analys as computed with Cronbach’s alpha showed α’s ranging between 0.63and 0.73,with the exception of α=0.36for day 3,displaying moder-ate consistency between the four raters.The are displayed in Table 2alongside Spearman’s rank correlations between the 4judges’creativity scores for each participant (averaged across the 5days).All judge pairings were significantly correlated.Daily Spearman’s rank correlations between the judges’creativity scores were also high.The judges’creativity and originality scores (aver-aged across the 5days)were highly correlated (r =0.89,p <0.05).The were also high on a day to day basis (r’s =0.51–0.84,all p’s <0.05).Therefore,scores were averaged across raters,and we focud the majority of our analys on the creativity score.
First,we explored the relation between the judges’creativ-ity rankings and the trait and state measures;e Table 3for an overview.Mean state dissociation was significantly cor-related with the creativity score (r =0.27,p <0.05),and the originality score (r =0.29,p <0.05),but not with bizarreness (r =0.11,p >0.05)and quality (r =0.19,p >0.05).Second,we examined the data from the daily sleep diary.Less SQ and fewer HS related to more bizareness in the photos of tho days (r =−0.27,and r =−0.29,both p’s <0.05).
Furthermore,participants reported whether they recalled hav-ing a dream last night,and whether this dream had a positive or negative emotional salience.As expected,we found a neg-ative correlation between how happy and how bad a dream was (r =−0.54,p <0.05).We found no relation between the emotional salience of the dreams and creativity on the following day (r =−0.04,and r =0.04respectively,both p’s >0.05).Similar results were found for orginality (r =0.01,and r =0.03),and bizareness (r =−0.03,and r =0.02),all p’s >0.05.电信短信查流量
TABLE 2|Spearman’s rank correlations and internal consistency analys (measured by Cronbach’s alpha)between the creativity ratings of our 4judges.
Photo1r
Photo2r Clin1r Inter-rater reliability across days:Cronbach’s αPhoto1–––Day 1=0.73Day 2=0.63Day 3=0.36Day 4=0.65Day 5=0.69
Photo20.46∗––Clin10.60∗0.59∗–Clin2
0.48∗
0.35∗
0.49∗
Photo1,Professional photographer 1;Photo2,Professional photographer 2;Clin1,Clinical psychologist 1;Clin2,Clinical psychologist 2.∗p <0.05
TABLE 3|Correlations between mean state measures and average ratings of judges on creativity,originality,bizarreness,and quality (N =72).
Crea
Orig Bizar Qual CADSS SQ Crea ––––––Orig 0.89∗–––––Bizar 0.53∗0.32∗––––Qual 0.79∗0.73∗0.34∗–––CADSS 0.27∗0.29∗0.110.19––SQ −0.14−0.06−0.27∗−0.13−0.21–HS
−0.08
−0.00
−0.29∗
−0.13
0.08
0.24∗
Crea,Creativity average rating;Orig,Originality average rating;Bizar,Bizarreness average rating;Qual,Quality average rating;CADSS,Clinician-Administered Dissociative States Scale;SQ,average sleep quality across the 5days;HS,average hours of sleep per night across the 5days.∗p <0.05(Critical value:r =0.23).
Finding Predictors of Creativity,Originality,and Bizarreness
In order to further explore the connection between the creativ-ity rankings and the measures collected (e Measures),while allowing for variance both within and between subjects,we fitted mixed-effects models to the daily creativity data.For an overview of mixed-effects modeling,e (for example)Singer and Willet (2009).
First,we considered a random-intercepts model (model 0in Table 4)and a random-intercepts model with a time slope (model 1).The addition of time to the model improved the fit to the data,with Akaike’s information criterion (AIC)decreas-ing,and the likelihood ratio test also suggesting we retain this predictor.
Next,we added random slope effects,to give a random inter-cepts and slopes model (model 2).This allows for the effect of the day of the study on creativity to vary by participant.The AIC incread with this addition,and the likelihood ratio test also suggested to not retain the random slopes.
Finally,we included a covariate for state dissociation (model 3).By comparison to model 1,we found state disso-ciation worth retaining in the model,supported by the likeli-hood ratio test as well as a drop in the AIC.We found this model described the data best.It was not incrementally valu-able to add HS,or SQ,to the random-intercepts model.Thus,a model with a random effect for each participant (i.e.,subject-specific intercepts),and with a population-wide slope for the fixed effect of the day of the contest on their creativity,plus the fixed-effect covariate of state dissociation,was the preferred model 2.
We repeated the analys for the originality ranking,which resulted in similar findings.We found that a model with a random effect for each participant,with a population-wide slope for the fixed effect of the day of the contest on their originality,and with a fixed-effect dissociation covari-ate,was the preferred model to predict originality rankings
2
The model formulae are:Creativity = 5.21+β1
−0.19(Day −1)+0.59∗(Dissociation )+ε,with β1∼
N (0,0.782).and ε∼N (0,1.462).
Originality = 6.13+β1 −0.24(Day −1)+0.59∗(Dissociation )+ε,with β1∼N (0,0.722).and ε∼N (0,1.582).
