Joph H.Greenberg(1966)经典的45条语言共性
基本语序
1:带有名词性主语和宾语的陈述句中,优势语序几乎总是主语处于宾语之前。
2:使用前置词的语言中,领属语几乎总是后置于中心名词,而使用后置词的语言,领属语几乎总是前置于中心名词。
3:优势语序为VSO的语言,总是使用前置词。
4:采取SOV为常规语序的语言,在远远超过随机频率的多数情况下,使用后置词
5:如果一种语言以SOV为优势语序,并且领属语后置于核心心名词,那么形容词也后置于核心名词。
安全文明手抄报
6:所有以VSO为优势语序的语言,都可以把SVO作为可能的或唯一的一种替换性基本语序。
7:在以SOV为优势语序的语言中,如果没有或仅有OSV为其替换性语序,那么动词所带的一切状语都处于动词之前。(这就是Ⅲ型的“严格”次类)
句法
8:如果可以根据语调模式区分是非疑问句和其相应的陈述句,那么语调模式中的每一种语调上的区别性特征表现在句末,而不是句首。
神奇的反义词9:在远远超过随机频率的多数情况下,涉及全句的疑问小词或词缀,在前置词语言中居于句首,在后置词语言中居于句末。
10:疑问小词或词缀如果指向句中某一特定的词,几乎总是跟在这个词的后头。以VSO为优势语序的语言中不出现这样的小词。
11:只有在疑问词或疑问短语通常居于句首的语言中,才会颠倒陈述的语序,使动词置于主语之前;只有特殊疑问句的情况如此,是非疑问句才会出现同样的语序颠倒。
12:陈述句中以VSO为优势语序的语言,其特指疑问句中总把疑问词或疑问短语放在句首。陈述句中以SOV 为优势语序的语言,不会有这样的变换。
13: 如果名词性宾语总在动词之前,那么从属于主要动词的动词形式也要置于主要动词之前。
14:在条件陈述句中,所有语言都以条件从句处于结论之前为正常语序。
15:除了名词性宾语总是居于动词之前的那些语言之外,表达意愿和目的的从属动词形式总是置于主要动词之后。
16:以VSO为优势语序的语言中,有屈折变化的助动词总是前置于主要动词。在以SOV为优势语序的语言中,有屈折变化的助动词总是跟在主要动词之后。
17:除了偶然出现的情况外,优势语序为VSO的语言绝大多数是形容词居于名词之后。
18:当描写性形容词前置于名词时,除了偶然出现的情况外,绝大多数情况是指别词和数词也处于名词之前。
19:当一般规则是描写性形容词后置时,可能会有少数形容词常常前置;但一般规则是描写性形容词前置时,则不存在例外。
20:当任何一个或者所有的下述成分(指别词、数词、描写性形容词)居于名词之前时,它们总以这种语序出现。如果它们后置,语序或者依旧,或者完全相反。
21:如果某些或所有副词跟在它们所修饰的形容词后,那么这种语言中的形容词也处于名词之后,而且以动词前置于名词性宾语为优势语序。
22:在形容词比较结构中,如果唯一的或可能交替的语序之一是基准-标记-形容词的话,那么这语言是后置词语言。如果唯一的语序是形容词-标记-基准,那么这种语言除了偶然出现的情况外,绝大多数是前置词语言。
23:如果同位结构中专用名词一般前置于普通名词,那么这种语言里的中心名词也前置于从属它的领属语成分。如果普通名词一般前置于专用名词,那么,从属的领属语成分绝大多数处于它的中心名词之前。24:如果关系从句前置于名词是唯一的或者是可交替的结构,那么这种语言或使用后置词,或者形容词前
置于名词,也可能二者兼有。
25:如果代词性宾语后置于动词,那么名词性宾语也同样后置。
词法
26:如果一种语言有非连续性的词缀,它总是有前缀或后缀,或者两者兼有。
27:如果一种语言仅有后缀,那么这是使用后置词的;仅有前缀,则是使用前置词的。
28:如果派生词缀和屈折词缀都后置于或都前置于词根,派生词缀总在词根和屈折词缀之间。
29:如果一种语言有屈折变化,那它总有派生现象。杨梅干
30:如果一种语言里动词有人称-数的范畴或有性的范畴,那么它总有时-式的范畴。
请假条样本
31:如果作主语或作宾语的名词跟动词有性的一致关系,那么形容词跟名词也总有性的一致关系。
32:只要动词跟名词性主语或宾语有性的一致关系,总也有数的一致关系。
33: 如果名词跟动词之间的数的一致关系没有专门表示出来,并且这又跟语序有关,那么此时动词总是前置的,并且是单数形式。
34:有双数的语言才会有三数。有复数的语言才会有双数。
35: 复数在所有的语言里都用某种非零形式的语素来表示,而单数在有些语言中仅用零形式表示。双数和三数几乎从不采取零形式。
36:一种语言如果有性的范畴,它总具有数的范畴。
37:一种语言的性的范畴在非单数中不会比在单数中多。
38: 在有格的系统的情况下,唯一用零形式语素表示的是意义上包含了不及物动词主语的格。
39: 如果表示数和格的语素一起出现,并且都前置或后置于名词,那么表示数的成分总在名词词根和表示格的成分之间。
40: 当形容词后置于名词时,形容词表示出名词的所有的屈折范畴。在这种情况下,名词可能缺少其中一个范畴或全部范畴的显性标记。
41: 如果一种语言里动词后置于名词性主语和宾语是优势语序,那么这种语言几乎都具有格的系统。
42: 所有的语言都有至少包括三种人称和两种数在内的代词范畴。
43: 一种语言如果名词有性的范畴,那么在代词也有性的范畴。
44: 一种语言如果在第一人称上有性的区别,那么第二或第三人称,或者这两种人称,也总有性的区别。45: 如果代词的复数有任何性的区别,那么单数也会有某种性的区别。
Appendix III*
Universals Restated
Universal 1. In declarative ntences with nominal subject and object, the dominant order is almost always one in which the subject precedes the object.
Universal 2. In languages with prepositions, the genitive almost always follows the governing noun, while in languages with postpositions it almost always precedes.
Universal 3. Languages with dominant VSO order are always prepositional.
Universal 4. With overwhelmingly greater than chance frequency, languages with normal SOV order are postpositional.
Universal 5. If a language has dominant SOV order and the genitive follows the governing noun, then the adjective likewi follows the noun.
Universal 6. All languages with dominant VSO order have SVO as an alternative or as the only alternative basic order.
Universal 7. If in a language with dominant SOV order, there is no alternative basic order, or only OSV as the alternative, then all adverbial modifiers of the verb likewi precede the verb. (This is the "rigid" subtype of III.)
Universal 8. When a yes-no question is differentiated from the corresponding asrtion by an intonational pattern, the distinctive intonational features of each of the patterns are reckoned from the end of the ntence rather than from the beginning.
Universal 9. With well more than chance frequency, when question particles or affixes are specified i
n position by reference to the ntence as a whole, if initial, such elements are found in prepositional languages, and, if final, in postpositional.
Universal 10. Question particles or affixes, when specified in position by reference to a particular word in the ntence, almost always follow that word. Such particles do not occur in languages with dominant order VSO.
Universal 11. Inversion of statement order so that verb precedes subject occurs only in languages where the question word or phra is normally initial. This same inversion occurs in yes-no questions only if it also occurs in interrogative word questions.
Universal 12. If a language has dominant order VSO in declarative ntences, it always puts interrogative words or phras first in interrogative word questions; if it has dominant order SOV in declarative ntences, there is never such an invariant rule.
Universal 13. If the nominal object always precedes the verb, then verb forms subordinate to the main verb also precede it.
Universal 14. In conditional statements, the conditional clau precedes the conclusion as the normal order in all languages.
Universal 15. In expressions of volition and purpo, a subordinate verbal form always follows the main verb as the normal order except in tho languages in which the nominal object always precedes the verb.
Universal 16. In languages with dominant order VSO, an inflected auxiliary always precedes the main verb. In languages with dominant order SOV, an inflected auxiliary always follows the main verb.与时间有关的成语
Universal 17. With overwhelmingly more than chance frequency, languages with dominant order VSO have the adjective after the noun.
Universal 18. When the descriptive adjective precedes the noun, the demonstrative and the numeral, with overwhelmingly more than chance frequency, do likewi.
Universal 19. When the general rule is that the descriptive adjective follows, there may be a minority of adjectives which usually precede, but when the general rule is that descriptive adjectives precede, there are no exceptions.
Universal 20. When any or all of the items (demonstrative, numeral, and descriptive adjective) prece
de the noun, they are always found in that order. If they follow, the order is either the same or its exact opposite.
Universal 21. If some or all adverbs follow the adjective they modify, then the language is one in which the qualifying adjective follows the noun and the verb precedes its nominal object as the dominant order.
红尘如梦Universal 22. If in comparisons of superiority the only order, or one of the alternative orders, is standard-marker-adjective, then the language is postpositional. With overwhelmingly more than chance frequency if the only order is adjective-marker-standard, the language is prepositional.
Universal 23. If in apposition the proper noun usually precedes the common noun, then the language is one in which the governing noun precedes its dependent genitive. With much better than chance frequency, if the common noun usually precedes the proper noun, the dependent genitive precedes its governing noun.
Universal 24. If the relative expression precedes the noun either as the only construction or as an alternate construction, either the language is postpositional, or the adjective precedes the noun or both.
Universal 25. If the pronominal object follows the verb, so does the nominal object. Universal 26. If a language has discontinuous affixes, it always has either prefixing or suffixing or both.
Universal 27. If a language is exclusively suffixing, it is postpositional; if it is exclusively prefixing, it is prepositional.
Universal 28. If both the derivation and inflection follow the root, or they both precede the root, the derivation is always between the root and the inflection.
Universal 29. If a language has inflection, it always has derivation.
Universal 30. If the verb has categories of person-number or if it has categories of gender, it always has ten-mode categories.
Universal 31. If either the subject or object noun agrees with the verb in gender, then the adjective always agrees with the noun in gender.
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Universal 32. Whenever the verb agrees with a nominal subject or nominal object in gender, it also agrees in number.
Universal 33. When number agreement between the noun and verb is suspended and the rule is bad on order, the ca is always one in which the verb precedes and the verb is in the singular. Universal 34. No language has a trial number unless it has a dual. No language has a dual unless it has a plural.
Universal 35. There is no language in which the plural does not have some nonzero allomorphs, whereas there are languages in which the singular is expresd only by zero. The dual and the trial are almost never expresd only by zero.
Universal 36. If a language has the category of gender, it always has the category of number. Universal 37. A language never has more gender categories in nonsingular numbers than in the singular.
Universal 38. Where there is a ca system, the only ca which ever has only zero allomorphs is the one which includes among its meanings that of the subject of the intransitive verb. Universal 39. Where morphemes of both number and ca are prent and both follow or both precede the noun ba, the expression of number almost always comes between the noun ba and the expression of ca.
Universal 40. When the adjective follows the noun, the adjective express all the inflectional categories of the noun. In such cas the noun may lack overt expression of one or all of the categories.
茶叶的制作Universal 41. If in a language the verb follows both the nominal subject and nominal object as the dominant order, the language almost always has a ca system.
Universal 42. All languages have pronominal categories involving at least three persons and two numbers.
Universal 43. If a language has gender categories in the noun, it has gender categories in the
pronoun.
Universal 44. If a language has gender distinctions in the first person, it always has gender distinctions in the cond or third person, or in both.
Universal 45. If there are any gender distinctions in the plural of the pronoun, there are some gender distinctions in the singular also.
Typology and Universals(Second Edition)导读
世界上大约有4,000到 6,000 种语言,可以想见其巨大差异性,但尽管有不同,它们仍具有作为人类语言的内在一致性。语言类型学主要研究基于语法特点的语言分类,忽视发生学上、地理上联系。语言类型学研究人类语言的结构变异(variation),试图确定这些变异的限制并作出解释。
古典类型学基于的形态学标准源自 A.W. von Schlegel(1818)所作的分析语和综合语的区分。在综合语中,Schlegel区分黏着语和屈折语。 Humboldt(1836)加上“多式综合语”。在语言类型学的早期阶段,每种类型都附上今天看来不可取的价值评判,如屈折语中的形式丰富被认为是更进步的表现,而孤立语和黏着语被视为出于处于向屈折语发展的不发达阶段。传统的主要是形态学类型学不能充分考虑音系、形态和句法标准的相互依存性。句法途径研究类型学多亏Greenberg(1963),他发展了词序类型的类型学。其他句法属性,如语法关系系统(如作格vs主格语言)也用做语言类型学的基础。
现代语言类型学主要专著在20世纪后期主要有5种,它们是Altmann and Lehfeldt(1973)a的《普通语言类型学:原理和》,Mallinson和 Blake(1981)的《语言类型学:跨语言句法研究》,Comrie(1981)《语言共性和语言类型》(第二版1989),Croft(1990)的《语言类型学与普遍语法特征》以及Whaley(1997)的《类型学导论:语言统一性与多样性》。鉴于这些著作的过早、过专或过泛,Jae Jung Song(2001)在吸收多年来类型学研究成果的基础上在21世纪第二个年头出版了语言类型学新著《语言类型学:形态和句法》。Jae Jung Song的书收集广泛的语言材料提供最新的对语言类型学的评论。着重于几个主要的论题,从词序到使役结构,此书揭示、阐述系统模式(system
atic patterns)的方法。该书讨论了语料收集、语言采样、语言类型学的应用等实践和方法论的问题,特别介绍了欧洲语言类型学的方法。而亲炙Greenberg 大师的Croft也一直酝酿修订自己的著作,终于在2003年出了新一版。最近十就年来,这些著作连续出版以及大量类型学的研究论文发表,表明语言类型学研究已经成为语言学研究领域的一门显学。
Croft第二版的Typology and Universals对第一版来说几乎是一次重写,原因是经过多年的发展,语言类型学已今非昔比,它作为一种语言研究方法已经成熟,而原版不能反映该领域的发展和一些重要创新,如当代类型学研究中语义图模型(mantic map model)的系统运用等。
在过去的十多年中类型学不仅取得丰硕的研究成果也发展形成了自己独立的机构身份,如创刊了专业性期刊Linguistic Typology,组建了国际性的协会(the Association of Linguistic Typology[ALT])。在德国莱比锡,以Comrie为核心创建一个研究部门凝聚一批优秀的类型学研究者。过去十年中发表的类型学研究成果主要出自欧洲学者(包括类型学研究重镇的俄罗斯学者)之手,以上表明类型学研究的重心已由美观转向欧洲,Croft的新一版书充分地反映出这个转向。
1 导言
介绍语言类型学的定义、研究旨趣以及跨语言比较研究中涉及的基本原理和方法。
1.1 什么是类型学?
1.1 介绍typology三种不同层面的定义:一是“分类”意义的类型学。这个意义的类型学在语言学领域内外都用。typology普通的定义大致与“分类”同义,即把研究的对象分成类型特别是结构类型。最一般的语言学定义是指“跨语言结构类型的分类”,简单地称为“类型学分类”。二是“概括”意义的类型学,主要是指对跨语言比较中系统呈现出的语言学模式(共性特别是蕴含性共性)的研究。这个定义的类型学可指称为“类型学概括”。这个意义的类型学是语言学的一个分支。三是“解释”意义的类型学。这