Semiotics for Beginners
符号学入门
Daniel Chandler人生的过客
丹尼尔·钱德勒
Denotation, Connotation and Myth
婚纱拖尾外延意义，内涵意义及错误认识
Beyond its 'literal' meaning (its denotation), a particular word may have connotations: for instance, xual connotations. 'Is there any such thing as a single entendre?' quipped the comic actor Kenneth Williams (we all know that 'a thing is a phallic symbol if it's longer than it's wide', as the singer Melanie put it). In miotics, denotation and connotation are terms describing the relationship between the signifier and its signified, and an analytic distinction is made between two types of signifieds: a denotative signified and a connotative signified. Meaning includes both denotation and connotation：
在一个词的“字面”意思之外（外延意义），一个特定的词会有内涵意义：比如，性的内涵。喜剧演员肯
什么是勇敢尼斯·威廉姆斯风趣的说过，“有只有一个意思的双关语吗？”（就像歌者梅兰妮表述的那样，我们都知道“说一个东西长大于宽其实就是指阴茎。”）符号学、外延意义和内涵意义是一些用来描述能指和所指之间关系的术语，并且在两种类型的所指之间可以做分析区别：外延所指和内涵所指。意义包括外延和内涵两层意义：
'Denotation' tends to be described as the definitional, 'literal', 'obvious' or 'commonn' meaning of a sign. In the ca of linguistic signs, the denotative meaning is what the dictionary attempts to provide. For the art historian Erwin Panofsky, the denotation of a reprentational visual image is what all viewers from any culture and at any time would recognize the image as depicting (Panofsky 1970a, 51-3). Even such a definition rais issues - all viewers? One suspects that this excludes very young children and tho regarded as insane, for instance. But if it really means 'culturally well-adjusted' then it is already culture-specific, which takes us into the territory of connotation. The term 'connotation' is ud to refer to the socio-cultural and 'personal' associations (ideological, emotional etc.) of the sign. The are typically related to the interpreter's class, age, gender, ethnicity and so on. Signs are more 'polymic' - more open to interpretation - in their connotations than their denotations. Denotation is sometimes regarded as a digital code and connotation as an analogue code (Wilden 1987, 224).
“外延意义”倾向被用来描述成定义上的，即一个符号“文字上的”，“明显的”或“常识性的”意义。就语言学符号层面来讲，词典的目的是提供外延意义。对于艺术史学家欧文·帕诺夫斯基来说，一个具有代表意义的视觉形象就是无论来自任何文化和在任何时代所有观察者可以辨识的描述性内容（帕诺夫斯基1970a, 51-3)。即使这样一个定义还是有问题——针对所有观察者吗？比如，其中一个疑问就是这排除
信念的诗句
了孩子和有精神问题的人。但是如果它真的是有“很好的文化适应性”同时也会有文化差异性，这就带领我们进入内涵意义领域进行研究。“内涵意义”这个术语是用来指代某个符号，社会文化和“个人”组织（意识形态，情感，等等）的含义。这些都非常具有典型性，与译者的社会阶级、年龄、性别、种族等密切相关。相比于外延意义，符号在内涵意义方面更“多义”，对解释更具开放性。外延有时被看成数字代码而内涵被视为模拟代码（怀尔登1987,224）。
As Roland Barthes noted, Saussure's model of the sign focud on denotation at the expen of connotation and it was left to subquent theorists (notably Barthes himlf) to offer an account of this important dimension of meaning (Barthes 1967, 89ff).
正如罗兰·巴特说过，索绪尔的符号模式在牺牲内涵意义的前提下关注外延意义，这使后来的理论家（最著名的是巴特本人）对这一重要的意义范畴提供了一种解释。重生之高中岁月
In 'The Photographic Message' (1961) and 'The Rhetoric of the Image' (1964), Barthes argued that in photography connotation can be (analytically) distinguished from denotation (Barthes 1977, 15-31, 32-51).
在《摄影信息》（1961）和《图像修辞学》（1964）两本书中，巴特谈论到摄影的内涵意义能够与外延意义区分开来（解析意义上）（巴特1977, 15-31, 32-51)。
As Fiske puts it 'denotation is what is photographed, connotation is how
it is photographed' (Fiske 1982, 91). However, in photography, denotation is foregrounded at the expen of connotation. The photographic signifier ems to be virtually identical with its signified, and the photograph appears to be a 'natural sign' produced without the intervention of a code (Hall 1980, 132). Barthes initially argued that only at a level higher than the 'literal' level of denotation, could a code be identified - that of connotation (we will return to this issue when we discuss codes). By 1973 Barthes had shifted his ground on this issue. In analysing the realist literary text Barthes came to the conclusion that 'denotation is not the first meaning, but pretends to be so; under this illusion, it is ultimately no more than the last of the connotations (the one which ems both to establish and clo the reading), the superior myth by which the text pretends to return to the nature
of language, to language as nature' (Barthes 1974, 9). Connotation, in short, produces the illusion of denotation, the illusion of language as transparent and of the signifier and the signified as being identical. Thus denotation is just another connotation. From such a perspective denotation can be en as no more of a 'natural' meaning than is connotation but rather as a process of naturalization. Such a process leads to the powerful illusion that denotation is a purely literal and universal meaning which is not at all ideological, and indeed that tho connotations which em most obvious to individual interpreters are just as 'natural'. According to an
Althusrian reading, when we first learn denotations, we are also being positioned within ideology by learning dominant connotations at the same time (Silverman 1983, 30).武汉英语学校
控烟手抄报
正如伊斯科表述的那样，“外延意义是拍摄到的东西，内涵意义是如何拍摄”（伊斯科1982,91）。但在摄影中，突出外延意义是以牺牲内涵意义为代价的。摄影中的能指与所指几乎相同，并且摄影似乎就是制作一个“自然符号”，不会有代码干预（霍尔1980,132）。巴特最初认为只有在一个比外延意义“字面”层次更高的层次上，才会确认内涵意义的代码（我们在讨论代码时会再次讨论这个话题）。截止到1973年，巴特已经转换了这个话题上的基础。在分析现实主义文学文本中，巴特得出结论，“外延意义实则不是第一意义；在这种错觉下，它最终仅仅成了内涵意义的最后一个（开始和结束阅读），最荒唐的是文本想借此回到语言的自然状态，好像是自然状态。（巴特1974,9）。简言之，内涵意义产
生外延意义的一种错觉，这种语言错觉的透明度与能指和所指是完全相同的。因此外延意义成了另一个内涵意义。从这个角度看，外延意义可视作与内涵意义差不多的“自然”意义，并完全成为一种自然化的过程。这个过程产生如此强烈的错觉以至于外延意义是纯粹而普遍的意义，而这种意义不适于所有的意识形态，并且这些似乎对个人翻译看起来非常明显的内涵意义是很自然的。根据阿尔都塞文章，当我们初次学习外延意义时，通过同时学习占主导地位的内涵意义，我们也会将自己置于意识形态的范畴内。（西尔弗曼，1983,30）山楂的作用
