第二节 肠内营养的选择
进行肠内营养支持时，需根据预期营养支持的时间、肠道功能的受损程度、发生吸入性肺炎的危险性及病人的病情和营养状况，决定肠内营养方式和制剂。
一、病人的选择
If the GI tract is functional, it should be ud for enteral nutrition (EN), even if only a small amount can be tolerated. Oral intake is encouraged once a speech pathologist has determined the patient is not at high risk for aspiration. Nasoenteric devices, preferably postpyloric, are preferred if EN is not expected to persist past 30 days. Percutaneous gastrostomy or jejunostomy devices are placed if EN is expected beyond 30 days.
一般认为当病人胃肠道功能不健全、不能吸收足够的营养时，肠外营养能迅速补充营养，
改善营养状况，拯救病人的生命。但原则上讲，只要病人胃肠道功能存在或部分存在，并具有一定的吸收功能，就应该首选肠内营养。只有真性肠麻痹、机械性肠梗阻及严重腹腔感染时，才考虑采用肠外营养。
二、时机的选择
肠内营养的时机选择很重要。危重病人或严重创伤病人一旦血液动力学稳定，酸碱失衡和电解质紊乱得到纠正，就应立即开始肠内营养。一般严重创伤后24～48小时内给予肠内营养效果最佳。对于择期手术的病人，如果存在营养不良，手术前就应该采用肠内营养，改善病人的营养状况和免疫功能，提高手术耐受力，降低手术风险，减少手术并发症。
b超怎么检查 三、置管方式的选择
Access routes for enteral feeding vary according to the individual patient. In deciding which route to u, the anticipated length of feeding and the prence of delayed gastric
emptying are two major considerations. Access to the GI tract via the nasal route such as nasogastric, nasoduodenal, or nasojejunal tubes are usually short term (less than 6-8 weeks). The tubes can be placed at the bedside. When enteral feeding is anticipated for a longer period of time an enterostomy tube should be considered. This is a more invasive category of enteral feeding where the tube access the GI tract through the abdominal wall. This procedure can be carried out in an endoscopy unit, radiology department or in theatre.
1. 对病人的损伤程度 损伤小、简单安全是置管最重要的原则。目前临床应用最广泛的是经鼻置鼻胃管、鼻十二指肠管或鼻空肠管。对于有肠内营养指征，上消化道无梗阻，营养支持后仍可恢复自然经口进食者，应尽可能采用经鼻置管。只有口、咽、鼻、食管梗阻或因疾病原因不能恢复经口进食，或虽然能恢复经口进食但需时较长、发生吸入性肺炎危险性大的病人才考虑造瘘置管。
2. 营养支持所需时间 需长期管饲者宜用胃造口或空肠造口置管，估计时间较短者宜采用经鼻置管。时间长短受病人疾病、营养状况、医疗监护条件和所用鼻饲管质地等影响。
3. 胃肠道功能 胃肠道功能受损程度影响肠内营养方式的选择，严重受损者不能应用肠内
营养。胃肠功能差、需持续滴入营养液以及有较大误吸危险者，宜用胃或空肠造口置管。经腹手术的病人，如营养状况差、手术创伤重，或估计术后发生胰瘘、胆瘘、胃肠吻合口瘘等可能性大者，应在术中作空肠造口置管，用于病人较长时间的营养支持。
四、营养液输注方法的选择
1. 营养液输注时间的选择 根据病人营养需要及其耐受程度而定。一般使用间歇输注，病人可以有较大的活动度，适用于胃肠道功能较好的病人。对于胃肠道功能差、严重营养不良、并发症多、高应激状态或躁动的病人，可以给予连续性输注，一般为连续喂养20小时、间歇4小时，以让消化系统有足够的时间休息。对于消化、吸收功能非常差或使用抑酸剂的病人甚至可以24小时持续喂养。
The length of time which enteral feeding is given depends on the patient's needs and tolerance as well as local practices. If a patient requires full nutritional support it is usual to feed over about 20h with a 4-h rest period to allow the gastric acidity to return to normal. If the patient is given antacids, the feeding can continue over 24h if required as the gastric acidity is already altered.
2. 营养液输注速度的选择 病人由肠道旷置到重新耐受肠道内营养物质需要一段时间，因此刚开始输注肠内营养液时应遵循低渗、少量、慢速的原则。一般间歇性输注病人开始肠内营养时，营养液的滴速宜控制在25～50ml/h。如病人耐受，可每8小时增加25～50ml，16小时后可增加100ml，24小时可增加150ml左右。如病人不耐受，滴速增加的幅度应减慢。连续性泵输注的病人可匀速输注，最初滴速亦为25～50ml/h，每8小时增加25～50ml，最终的平均滴速宜为100ml/h左右，最高可至200ml/h。调整滴速的依据是胃内潴留物的检查。
If a patient has not been fed in the last 5 days, feedings should begin as low volume, continuous flow feedings in the range of 25 to 50ml/hour. Depending on the patient's tolerance, the rate can be titrated upward by 25ml every 8 to 12 hours. Residual volume in stomach should be monitored every 2 to 4 hours.
If the patient is tolerating enteral feeding, the length of time that they are fed can be reduced, and the rate must increa to make sure all requirements are met. In situations where adult patients are well established on feeding, feeds can be administered at a rate of up to 200ml/h by pump or bolus.
五、营养制剂的选择
胃肠道功能良好者可用管饲滴注含完整蛋白的完全膳食，如匀浆膳、混合奶等，小儿可给予婴儿膳。如果口咽无梗阻，经一段时间管饲营养支持后病情缓解，可逐渐恢复自然饮食。但对口、咽、食管有梗阻，或因疾病、手术而吞咽功能受损者，则需长期管饲完全膳食。消化吸收功能较差者，可以采用要素制剂。详见下一节。
六、能量、氮量及液体量的选择
Since the loss of protein stores directly affects body function, it is important to administer sufficient amounts of energy and protein.
1. 能量 肠内营养支持的实施首先要确定病人的能量需要量。
In the past, hyperalimentation (the delivery of energy in excess of requirements) was thought to be efficient in improving nutritional status. However, hyperalimentation has bee
n shown to induce vere metabolic abnormalities such as hyperglycemia, hyperlipidemia, and incread carbon dioxide production. Patients receiving nutritional support should be fed to their requirements.
In clinical practice, lected methods for estimating basal energy requirements are shown in Box 9.1.1. A frequently ud simple guideline for estimating the daily energy needs of a patient is 25-35 kcal/kg body weight.
Box 9.1.1 Selected methods for estimating energy requirements
Harris-Benedict equation (estimates basal energy expenditure)
Male:(13.75×W)+(5.0×H)+(6.76×A)+66.47
Female:(9.56×W)+(1.85×H)-(4.68×A)+655.1
where W is weight in kilograms; H is height in centimeters; A is age in years.
To predict total energy expenditure (TEE), add an injury/activity factor of 1.2-1.8 depending on the verity and nature of illness.
Ireton-Jones energy expenditure equations
Obesity
IEE =606S+9W+12A+400V+1444
Spontaneously breathing patients
EEEs =629-11A+25W-609O
Ventilator-dependent patients
EEEv =1925-10A+5W+281S+292T+8518
EEE is in kcal/day; subscript V indicates ventilator dependent; subscript S indicates spontaneously breathing.
S: x (male=1, female=0)
V: ventilator support (prent=1, abnt=0)
T: diagnosis of trauma (prent=1, abnt=0)
B: diagnosis of burn (prent=1, abnt=0)
O: obesity > 30% above ideal body weight from 1959 Metropolitan Life Insurance tables (prent=1, abnt=0)
In the clinical situation, additional dia-associated factors should be taken into account during the calculation of the required energy needs. The include dia stress factor, activity factor, and temperature factor. Energy and nutrient loss from malabsorption should be taken into account when prent.
能量的供给并非多多益善，不仅要考虑病人的能量消耗，还要考虑病人的实际代谢能力。1970年，Kinney和他的研究小组发现选择性手术并不增加能量消耗，只有重大创伤或非常严重的败血症病人，其能量消耗会在一定时间内增加20%～40%。随着护理和镇痛技术的提高，与创伤有关的代谢负荷出现下降的趋势。因此，病人的能量供给应因人因时而异。对应激期的病人，尤其是危重病人，能量补充宜维持体重而非增加体重，能量供给量应以能维持能量代谢平衡、氮平衡为宜。而在恢复期则应在能量消耗的基础上，考虑合成代谢所需，以利于机体的修复。
病人能量供给量包括基础能量消耗、体力活动消耗和疾病应激时的能量消耗。可根据Harris-Benedict公式确定BEE（见Box 9.1.1）。再根据BEE、活动系数、应激系数、体温系数来确定总能量的消耗，即总能量需求＝BEE×活动系数×应激系数×体温系数。活动系
数：卧床为1.2，床边活动为1.25，正常轻度活动为1.3。应激系数见表9-2-1。体温系数：正常时为1.0，每升高1℃增加消耗10%。
表9-2-1 不同疾病状态下应激系数
疾 病 | 应激系数 | 疾 病 | 应激系数 |
中等程度饥饿 | 0.85～1.00 | 严重感染或多发性创伤 | 1.30～1.55 |
术后（无并发症） | 1.00～1.05 | 烧伤（10%～30%焖烧壶的使用方法体表面积） | 1.50 |
癌症 | 1.10～1.45 | 烧伤（30%～50%体表面积） | 1.75 |
腹膜炎 | 1.05～感恩寄语1.25 | 烧伤（＞50%体表面积） | 2.00 |
长骨骨折 | 1.15～1.30 | | |
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引自：《临床肠外与肠内营养》，蒋朱明、蔡威主编，2000年。
大地幼儿园
际上，病人实际能量的消耗通常低于由经典的公式计算出来的数值。大部分病人（包括ICU病人）的能量消耗一般不高于8.36MJ/d（2000kcal/d）。
能量的计算还可按(105～146kJ)[25～35kcal]/kg估算。
2. 蛋白质 正常人每日蛋白质的需要量一般为0.8g/kg。营养治疗时为满足蛋白质需要可增至每日1.5g/kg，正常或轻度营养不良者按实际体重计，重度营养不良者按平时体重计，超重者则需按理想体重计。对于危重病人，能够满足蛋白质合成需要、纠正负氮平衡的理想摄入量为1.5～1.7g/kg。由于高蛋白质饮食会增加肝、肾负担，蛋白质的摄入量不宜超过2.0g/kg。如以能量计算，每日蛋白质摄入量应占全天总能量的15%文员的岗位职责左右。另外，非蛋白质能量与氮量之比（能氮比）以（627～836kJ）[150～200kcal]:1g较为合适。能量需要下降时，能氮比也应下降。如病人需要较多蛋白质，则能氮比需降至（笑话418～502kJ）[100～120kcal]:1g才能满足蛋白质需要，肝衰、肾衰病人以（1.05～1.88MJ）[250～450kcal]:1g为宜。
Simply providing an excess of energy will not promote a positive N balance if the protein intake is less than adequate. Whereas in the diad patient protein synthesis can be stimulated by feeding, protein intake cannot influence whole body protein breakdown that occurs during inflammation.
When protein accretion is the goal of nutritional therapy, the protein intake will have to be raid to about 1.5g/kg per day. In verely ill patients and incread protein intake of 1.5-1.7g/kg body weight per day (normally 0.8g/kg body weight/day) optimally stimulates protein synthesis, resulting in the least negative nitrogen balance. Since there may be a diminished ability of the kidney and liver to tolerate a high amino acid load, the protein intake of patient should ideally not exceed 2 g/kg per day. Expresd as a percentage of the energy given, the protein intake should be about 15%.
3. 液体量
During dia, fluid and electrolyte balances can become disturbed. Overloading of fluids and electrolytes may impair gastric motility and delay the u of the enteral route for feeding. Fluid retention will also affect body weight, and if not accounted for can lead to inaccuracies in asssing nutritional requirements.
Typically, patients require about 30ml/kg body weight of fluid per day, but patients with advanced age, heart/liver/renal dia, and fluid retention require less, and tho with diarrhea, high output ostomies, psis, and polyuria require more.
一般情况下，每供给4.184kJ （1kcal）能量时成人需供给1ml水，儿童需1.5ml。但在疾病状态下，水、电解质的平衡可能发生紊乱，水、电解质供给过多可能影响胃肠道蠕动，延长营养支持时间。水潴留可影响体重和营养状况的评估。因此，需要根据病人的病情、营养状况以及水的实际出入量正确判断水的需要量。通常每日需要30ml/kg，心衰、肝衰、肾衰及水潴留的病人应减少摄入量，而腹泻、瘘口大量渗出、脓毒症、多尿症的病人则需增加摄入量。如果病人有发热，则体温每升高1℃，应多补充10%水分。
七、家庭肠内营养的选择
适用于家庭肠内管饲营养支持病人的条件是：①原发疾病已稳定；②自然饮食不能满足营养需要，仍需靠完全肠内营养支持或部分肠内营养补充；忘忧草歌词③已经医院肠内营养治疗、有合适且可以保持的管饲途径、对营养配方耐受良好；④院外护理人员有条件并能胜任肠内营养支持（如对营养液无菌配制、保管、鼻饲管清洁、护理等已有充分训练），有良好和可靠的药品及设备供应渠道；⑤有严密的、及时的相关医院的咨询、随访救治措施。
实施家庭肠内营养支持比医院有更高的条件要求，需要完善和复杂的组织系统来保证。 | |
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