The New Public Law
新公共法
The public law of the United Kingdom is defined by the prevailing（adj. 流行的；一般的，最普通的） constitutional order（宪法秩序）,the government and the various institutions （n. 制度；建立；（社会或宗教等）公共机构）of the state，he rights of the citizen and membership of the European Union.Local government exists with（与…共存）statutory （adj. 法定的；法令的；可依法惩处的）powers and responsibilities.There are since 1998 devolved powers to the Scottish Parliament，the Welsh Asmbly（n. 装配；集会，集合） ，the Northern Ireland Asmbly and since 1999 an elected mayor（n. 市长）for London．The public law of the United Kingdom has lately come of age（臻至成熟）.There are veral reasons for this development．Fundamental constitutional reforms have embraced（vt. 拥抱；信奉，皈依；包含）changes to the electoral system（选举制度），a more independent Bank of England with the responsibility of adjusting interests rates（利息，利率） removed from the government of the day，reforms of the Hou of L
ords（英国的上议院），and strategies（n. 策略，战略）to modernize（v 现代化） almost every aspect of government institutions and procedures．There is also a new freedom of Information Act 2000（2000年《信息自由法》）．There are changes to the criminal justice system（刑事司法体系），tribunals（n. 法庭；裁决；法官席） and inquiries（n. 探究；调查；质询），and to the management of the courts system．The most celebrated and acclaimed （vt. 称赞；为…喝采，向…欢呼）innovation（n. 创新，革新；新方法） is the Human Rights Act 1998，which came fully into force in October 2000．The 1998 Act is likely to increa the u of judicial review （司法审查）and thus has the potential to shift（vt. 转移；改变）decision- making in public law matters from elected ministers （n. 部长；大臣）to the courts under the direction of incread judicial controls．
英国的公法是由盛行的宪法秩序来界定的，源于政府和州的不同公共机构，公民的权利和加入欧盟成为其成员国。本地政府与法定的权利和义务共存。这体现于自从1998年联合王国下放权力到苏格兰议会，威尔士国民议会，北爱尔兰议会和自1999年伦敦市市长的民主选举。英国的公法近来已臻至成熟。对于此发展则有以下一些理由：基本宪法的改革包
含了选举制度的改变：一个更为独立的负有远离政府控制来调整利率责任的英格兰银行，英国上议院的改革，和几乎政府的机构与程序的每一方面的战略都趋向现代化。2000年英国也推出了《自由信息法案》。在刑事司法体系，裁判所及审查法，法院系统的管理方面也有一些改变。最让人值得庆祝和欢呼的是1998年《人权法案》，并于2000年开始正式地实施。1998年的《人权法案》很可能增加了司法审查的使用而因此有可能改变公法问题上的决策，从而在增加司法控制的指导下选举法院大臣。
In conceptual terms，public law has developed its own technical rules（技术规则） and procedures and techniques of analysis．In academic terms，public law has broadly defined terms of reference including the academic discour（学术话语） from lawyers，economists，historians and political scientists．There is also a judicial contribution．The development of administrative law is largely a product of judicial creativity（司法创造力）and 最诚恳道歉的句子lf regulation（自我调节）．Since the 1960s there is a remarkable judicial lf-confidence in defining and articulating（v光的反射定律表达，表述）the role of the courts in public law matters．As Lord Donaldson remarked in 1984：
从概念术语的角度来看，公法在它自身的技术规则与程序和分析技巧上有一定的发展。从学术角度来看，公法有着广泛的参照定义包括源于法学家，经济学家，历史学家和政治科学家的学术话语。公法的发展同样是一种司法的贡献。行政法的发展在很大程度上是司法创造和政府自我控制的产品。自二十世纪六十年代起在界定和表述公法问题的法院的宪法角色上就有一种卓越的司法自信力。正如Lord Donaldson在1984年评议道：
“ Parliamentary democracy（议会制民主）as we know it is bad in the rule of law.That requires all citizens to obey the law，unless and until it can be changed by due process（程序正义）．There are no privileged class（特权阶层）to whom it does not apply（v适用）．”
如我们所知的议会制民主是基于法治而实施的。它要求所有公民除非和直到程序正义的被修改，否则须遵从于法律。而议会制民主也没有所谓的不适用于的特权阶层。
Changes in judicial attitudes，towards developing the common law in the direction of rights defined more broadly，came through（经历）a ries of landmark (n里程碑，划时代的事)cas in the 1960s．Since then，English administrative law has developed inc
rementally（adv. 递增地；增值地）．Ridge v Balldwin， Padfield v Minister of Agriculture，Fishoies and Food，and the development of Wednesbury unreasonableness enabled the courts to adopt a proactive（adj. 前摄的（前一活动中的因素对后一活动造成影响的）；有前瞻性的，先行一步的）approach．Instead of （代替；不是…而是…）relying on instances of （（类的）实例；（某类别的）实体）past failure in order to develop a systematic approach to administrative law，the courts filled in（填满，替代）,through their own initiative（n. 主动权；首创精神），gaps（n. 差异，缺口；缝隙）left by legislative neglect．The result was clear：a lf-confident judiciary that was prepared to fashion new tools for the development of judicial review．In 1977，Order 53 was introduced ，streamlining （vt. 使合理化；使成流线型）mechanisms（n. 机制）and procedures for the application for judicial review．Two landmark decisions showed the extent of judicial lf-confidence．In O,Reilly v Mackman，the Hou of Lords established that the Divisional（adj. 分区的；分割的）Bench （法官的职位(或身份)，[总称]法官(们)，法院）of the High Court had exclusive（subject to certain exceptions ）jurisdiction over（prep. 越过；在…之上；遍于…之上）
administrative law matters．In the Council（n. 委员会；会议；理事会）of Civil Service Unions decision,the Hou of Lords engaged in a form of judicial codification of common law principles.The grounds for judicial review included unreasonableness（n. 无理性），失忆男友irrationality（n. 不合理，无理性），proportionality（n. 相称；均衡；比例性），and procedural impropriety（程序不当）．It is noteworthy that the doctrine of unreasonableness may have to be strengthened to bring it into line with（按照，与……一致）the higher standards required under the Human Rights Act 1987．
司法态度的改变，是朝着普通法以权力为导向的定义更为广泛的发展，更是在在二十世纪六十年代历经了一系列具有里程碑意义的典型案例。自那时以来，英国的行政法有着快速的发展。Ridge 诉 Balldwin案， Padfield 诉 农业部案，Fishoies and Food，和Wednesbury的无理性发展使法院能够采用积极主动的途径。法院通过它们自身的自主权来填补由于立法忽视而造成的缺口，不是为了依赖于过去失败的实例而是为了对行政法制定出一套系统的研究方法。其结果是清晰的：一个拥有自信力的司法制度是使用新的工具来为司法审查的发展而准备。在1977年，第53号令颁布，为了司法审查的适用而简化机制和程序。两个划时代的决定证明了司法自信力的程度。在O,怎么注册香港公司Reilly v诉Mackman一案中，英
国上议院确立了高等法院的各区法官在行政法事务上拥有排他管辖权（使某人服从于某些例外）。在公务员委员会的决定上，英国上议院是以普通法原则所编纂的法典形式来参与。司法审查的基础包括无理性，不合理行，均衡性和程序不当。值得注意的是无理性主义可能不得不在1987年《人权法案》背景下强化与高标准要求一致。水彩作品>二十六个拼音字母
As a result of both creative judicial activism（司法能动）and legislation，judges have developed a wide discretion as to（至于，关于；就……而论）when to uphold（vt. 支撑；鼓励；赞成；举起）a judicial review．This flexibility，allowing the courts the power to exclude （vt. 排除；排斥；拒绝接纳；逐出）unmeritorious cas at an early stage，saves time and creates a specialized jurisdiction for the administrative courts．Cas （n诉讼案件）must be taken promptly(adv. 迅速地；立即地；敏捷地) within a three -month period．The standing (原告资格,起诉权；起诉资格)of the applicant is determined by the substantial(adj. 大量的；实质的；内容充实的) merits of the applicant，s ca．The courts have a discretion whether or not to grant any remedy（n法律救济）．
作为都创造司法能动和立法的结果，法官就司法审查而言发展了一种宽广的自由裁量权。这种权力的灵活性在早期时允许法官有权排除诉求无望的诉讼案件，从而节省了时间和为行政法庭发展了专门的管辖权。但诉讼案件必须在三个月期间内迅速着手解决。而申请人的起诉权是由申请案例的实质化价值来决定的。法院有它自己的自由裁量权：是否给予申请人任何的法律救济。
The role of the courts must also be placed in the context of the development of an extensive jurisdiction by statutory（adj. 法定的；法令的；可依法惩处的） tribunals（n. 法庭；裁决；法官席）．Employment tribunals（劳工裁判所）under the Employment Tribunals Act 1998 cover an extensive jurisdiction over employment issues，including race relations under the Race Relations Act 1976（1976年种族关系法）， the Race Relations（ Amendment） Act 200， x discrimination under the Sex Discrimination Act 1975（1975年性别歧视法），equal pay under the Equal Pay Act 1970（1970年平等杨幂身高体重报酬法），and disability under the Disability Discrimination Act 1995（1995年阿莫西林克拉维酸钾分散片说明书残疾歧视法案）．The Social Security Appeal Tribunal（上诉法庭）covers protection under various provisions（n. 规定）of the law relating to（关于，与…相关连）the payment o
f social curity，and acts as an appeal tribunal against the decision of the adjudication officer（仲裁官）．Mental health tribunals，lands tribunals（土地裁判庭）， and rent asssment committees （租金评估委员会）are also important examples of the work of tribunals in specialist areas．Tribunals offer the advantages of speed，low cost，informality ，flexibility ， experti（n. 专门知识；专门技术；专家的意见），accessibility（n. 易接近；可亲；可以得到），and privacy（n. 隐私；秘密；隐居；隐居处）in the adjudication（n. 裁定；判决）of disputes．
