文章内容 | 主要讲了一个非洲部落以及其周边的部落的发展历史 |
题型分布与答案参考 | 判断题7，填空题6 参考答案： 判断题 1. Aoshx是一个统一的部落T 2.其中两个部落的关系是敌对的F 3.一个部落曾经帮助一个部落攻打另一个部落 4.有一个部落曾经移民其它地区T （答案仅供参考） |
相关拓展 | CLASSIFYING SOCIETIES 初中化学教案Although humans have established many types of societies throughout history, sociologists and anthropologists tend to classify different societies according to the degree to which different groups within a society have unequal access to advantages such as resources, prestige or power, and usually refer to four basic types of societies. From least to most socially complex they are clans, tribes, chiefdoms and states. Clan The are small-scale societies of hunters and gatherers, generally of fewer than 100 people, who move asonally to exploit wild (undomesticated) food resources. Most surviving hunter- gatherer groups are of this kind, such as the Hadza of Tanzania or the San of southern Africa. Clan members are generally kinsfolk, related by descent or marriage. Clans lack formal leaders, so there are no marked economic differences or disparities in status among their members. Becau clans are compod of mobile groups of hunter-gatherers, their sites consist mainly of asonally occupied camps, and other smaller and more specialized sites. Among the latter are kill or butchery sites—locations where large mammals are killed and sometimes butchered—and work sites, where tools are made or other specific activities carried out. The ba camp of such a group may give evidence of rather insubstantial dwellings or temporary shelters, along with the debris of residential occupation. Tribe The are generally larger than mobile hunter-gatherer groups, but rarely number more than a few thousand, and their diet or subsistence is bad largely on cultivated plants and domesticated animals. Typically, they are ttled farmers, but they may be nomadic with a very different, mobile economy bad on the intensive exploitation of livestock. The are generally multi-community societies, with the individual communities integrated into the larger society through kinship ties. Although some tribes have officials and even a “capital” or at of government, such officials lack the economic ba necessary for effective u of power. T镜子能对着床吗he typical ttlement pattern for tribes is one of ttled agricultural homesteads or villages. Characteristically, no one ttlement dominates any of the others in the region. Instead, the archaeologist finds evidence for isolated, permanently occupied hous or for permanent villages. Such villages may be made up of a collection of free-standing hous, like tho of the first farms of the Danube valley in Europe. Or they may be clusters of buildings grouped together, for example, the pueblos of the American Southwest, and the early farming village or small town of Çatalhöyük in modern Turkey. Chiefdom The operate on the principle of ranking—differences in social status between people. Different lineages (a lineage is a group claiming descent from a common ancestor) are graded on a scale of prestige, and the nior lineage, and hence the society as a whole, is governed by a chief. Prestige and rank are determined by how cloly related one is to the chief, and there is no true stratification into class. The role of the chief is crucial. Often, there is local specialization in craft products, and surplus of the and of foodstuffs are periodically paid as obligation to the chief. He us the to maintain his retainers, and may u them for redistribution to his subjects. The chiefdom generally has a center of power, often with temples, residences of the chief and his retainers, and craft specialists. Chiefdoms vary greatly in size, but the range is generally between about 5000 and 20,000 persons. Early State The prerve many of the features of chiefdoms, but the ruler (perhaps a king or sometimes a queen) has explicit authority to establish laws and also to enforce them by the u of a standing army. Society no longer depends totally upon kin relationships: it is now stratified into different class. Agricultural workers and the poorer urban dwellers form the lowest class, with the craft specialists above, and the priests and kinsfolk of the ruler higher still. The functions of the ruler are often parated from tho of the priest: palace is distinguished from temple. The society is viewed as a territory owned by the ruling lineage and populated by tenants who have an obligation to pay taxes. The central capital hous a bureaucratic administration of officials; one of their principal purpos is to collect revenue (often in the form of taxes and tolls) and distribute it to government, army and craft specialists. Many early states developed complex redistribution systems to support the esntial rvices. This rather simple social typology, t out by Elman Service and elaborated by William Sanders and Joph Marino, can be criticized如何申请专利, and it should not be ud unthinkingly. Nevertheless, if we are eking to talk about early societies, we must u words and hence concepts to do so. S流浪猫怎么养ervice’s categories provide a good framework to help organize our thoughts. |
四川凉菜文章内容 | 关于气温上升对新西兰环境的影响，如海洋生物和动物的种类数量下降等。 |
题型分布与答案参考 | 标题配对题6，填空题 3，选择题3 参考答案待补充 |
相关拓展 | New Zealand Seaweed Call us not weeds; we are flowers of the a. Section A Seaweed is a particularly nutritious food, which absorbs and concentrates traces of a wide variety of minerals necessary to the body’s health. Many elements may occur in aweed – aluminium, barium, calcium, chlorine, copper, iodine and iron, to name but a few – traces normally produced by erosion and carried to the aweed beds by river and a currents. Seaweeds are also rich in vitamins: indeed, Eskimos obtain a high proportion of their bodily requirements of vitamin C from the aweeds they eat. The nutritive value of aweed has long been recognized. For instance, there is a remarkably low incidence of goiter amongst the Japane, and for that matter, amongst our own Maori people, who have always eaten aweeds, and this may well be attributed to the high iodine content of this food. Rearch into old Maori eating customs shows that jellies were made using aweeds, fresh fruit and nuts, fuchsia and tutu berries, cape gooberries, and many other fruits which either grew here naturally or were sown from eds brought by ttlers and explorers. Section B New Zealand lays claim to approximately 700 species of aweed, some of which have no reprentation outside this country. Of veral species grown worldwide, New Zealand also has a particularly large share. For example, it is estimated that New Zealand has some 30 species of Gigartina, a clo relative of carrageen or Irish moss. The are often referred to as the New Zealand carrageens. The gel-forming substance called agar which can be extracted from this species gives them great commercial application in ameal, from which ameal custard is made, and in cough mixtures, confectionery, cosmetics, the canning, paint and leather industries, the manufacture of duplicating pads, and in toothpastes. In fact, during World War II, New Zealand Gigartina were nt to Australia to be ud in toothpaste. Section C Yet although New Zealand has so much of the commercially profitable red aweeds, veral of which are a source of agar (Pterocladia, Gelidium, Chondrus, Gigartina), before 1940 relatively little u was made of them. New Zealand ud to import the Northern Hemisphere Irish moss (Chondus crispus) from England and ready-made agar from Japan. Although distribution of the Gigartina is confined to certain areas according to species, it is only on the east coast of the North Island that its occurrence is rare. And even then, the east coast, and the area around Hokiangna, have a considerable supply of the two species of Pterocladia from which agar is also available. Happily, New Zealand-made agar is now obtainable in health food shops. Section D Seaweeds are divided into three class determined by color – red, brown and green – and each tends to live in a specific location. However, except for the unmistakable a lettuce (Ulva), few are totally one color; and especially when dry, some species can change color quite significantly – a brown one may turn quite black, or a red one appear black, brown, pink or purple. Identification is nevertheless facilitated by the fact that the factors which determine where a aweed will grow are quite preci, and they tend therefore to occur in very well-defined zones. Although there are exceptions, the green aweeds are mainly shallow-water algae; the browns belong to medium depths, and the reds are plants of the deeper water. Flat rock surfaces near mid-level tides are the most usual habitat of a-bombs, Venus’ necklace and most brown aweeds. This is also the location of the purple laver on Maori karengo, which looks rather like a reddish-purple lettuce. Deep-water rocks on open coasts, expod only at very low tide, are usually the site of bull kelp, strapweeds and similar tough specimens. Tho species able to resist long periods of exposure to sun and air are usually found on the upper shore, while tho less able to stand such exposure occur nearer to or below the low-water mark. Radiation from the sun, the temperature level, and the length of time immerd all play a part in the zoning of aweeds. Section E Propagation of aweeds occurs by spores, or by fertilization of egg cells. None have roots in the usual n; few have leaves, and none have flowers, fruits or eds. The plants absorb their nourishment through their fronds when they are surrounded by water: the ba or 地震裂缝“holdfast” of aweeds is purely an attaching organ, not an absorbing one. Section F Some of the large aweeds maintain buoyancy with air-filled floats; others, such as bull kep, have large cells filled with air. Some, which spend a good part of their time expod to the air, often reduce dehydration either by having swollen stems that contain water, or they may (like Venus’ necklace) have swollen nodules, or they may have distinctive shape like a a-bomb. Others, like the a cactus, are filled with slimy fluid or have coating of mucilage on the surface. In some of the larger kelps, this coating is not only to keep the plant moist but also to protect it from the violent action of waves. |
文章内容 | 分析梦产生的原因以及对人们生活的影响 |
题型分布与答案参考 | 判断题4，单选题5，配对题5 参考答案待补充 |
相关拓展 | The Origins of Laughter While joking and wit are uniquely human inventions, laughter certainly is not. Other creatures, including chimpanzees, gorillas and even rats, laugh. The fact that they laugh suggests that laughter has been around for a lot longer than we have. There is no doubt that laughing typically involves groups of people. “Laughter evolved as a signal to others — it almost disappears when we are alone,” says Robert Provine, a neuroscientist at the University of Maryland. Provine found that most laughter comes as a polite reaction to everyday remarks such as “e you later”, rather than anything particularly funny. And the way we laugh depends on the company we’re keeping. Men tend to laugh longer and harder when they are with other man, perhaps as a way of bonding. Women tend to laugh more and at a higher pitch when men are prent, possibly indicating flirtation or even submission. To find the origins of laughter, Provine believes we need to look at play. He points out that the masters of laughing are children, and nowhere is their talent more obvious than in the boisterous antics, and the original context is play. Well-known primate watchers, including Dian Fosy and Jane Goodall, have long argued that chimps laugh while at play. The sound they produce is known as a pant laugh. It ems obvious when you watch their behavior — they even have the same ticklish spots as we do. But after removing the context, the parallel between human laughter and a chimp’s characteristic pant laugh is not so clear. When Porvine played a tape of the pant laughs to 119 of his students, for example, only two guesd correctly what is was. The findings underline how chimp and human laughter vary. When we laugh the sound is usually produced by chopping up a single exhalation into a ries of shorter with one sound produced on each inward and outward breath. The question is: does this pant laughter have the same source as our own laughter? New rearch lands weight to the idea that it does. The findings come from Elke Zimmerman, head of the Institute for Zoology in Germany, who compared the sounds made by babies and chimpanzees in respon to tickling during the first year of their life. Using sound spectrographs to reveal the pitch and intensity of vocalizations, she discovered that chimp and human baby laughter follow broadly the same pattern. Zimmerman believes the cloness of baby laughter to chimp laughter supports the idea that laughter was around long before humans arrived on the scene. What started simply as a modification of breathing associated with enjoyable and playful interactions has acquired a symbolic meaning as an indicator of pleasure. Pinpointing when laughter developed is another matter. Humans and chimps share a common ancestor that lived perhaps 8 million years ago, but animals might have been laughing long before that. More distantly related primates, including gorillas, laugh, and anecdotal evidence suggests that other social mammals can do too. Scientists are currently testing such stories with a comparative analysis of just how common laughter is among animals. So far, though, the most compelling evidence for laughter beyond primates comes from rearch done by Jaak Pankpp from Bowling Green State University, Ohio, into the ultrasonic chirps produced by rats during play and in respon to tickling. All this still doesn’t answer the question of why we laugh at all. One idea is that laughter and tickling originated as a way of aling the relationship between mother and child. Another is that the reflex respon to tickling is protective, alerting us to the prence of crawling creatures that might harm us or compelling us to defend the parts of our bodies that are most vulnerable in hand-to-hand combat. But the idea that has gained the most popularity in recent years is that laughter in respon to tickling is a way for two individuals to signal and test their trust in one another. This hypothesis starts from the obrvation that although a little tickle can be enjoyable, if goes on too long it can be torture. By engaging in a bout of tickling, we put ourlves at the mercy of another individual, and laughing is what makes it a reliable signal of trust, according to Ton Flamson, a laughter rearcher at the University of California, Los Angels. “Even in rats, laughter, tickle, play and trust are linked. Rats chirp a lot when they play, ” says Flamson. “The chirps can be aroud by tickling. And they get bonded to us as a result, which certainly ems like a show of trust.” We’ll never know which animal laughed the first laugh, or why. But we can be sure it wasn’t respon to a prehistoric joke. The funny thing is that while the origins of laughter are probably quite rious, we owe human laughter and our language-bad humor to the same unique skill. While other animals pant, we alone can control our breath well enough to produce the sound of laughter. Without that control there would also be no speech — and no jokes to endure. |
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