Attitude formation and change | Attitude: a t of beliefs and feelings. Attitudes are evaluative, meaning that our feelings toward such things are necessarily positive or negative. Mere exposure effect曝光效应: The more one is expod to something, the more one will come to like it. Persuasive messages 1、can be procesd through the Central route or peripheral route. 1) Central route to persuasion: involves deeply processing the content of the message. 2) Peripheral route to persuasion: involves other aspects of the message including the characteristics of the person imparting the message (the communicator: attractive people, famous people, and experts are among the most persuasive communicators). 教育实习日志 2、Audience： More educated people are less likely to be persuaded by advertiments. 3、the way the message is prented 1)uninformed audienceone-sided message is best 2)sophisticated audiencea communication that acknowledges and then refutes opposing arguments will be more effective. 4、messages that arou of appropriate level of fear are effective | 服装进货
The relationship between attitudes and behavior | 1、Richard La Piere: Asian prejudice rearch Attitudes survey: do not like Asians and they would not rve Asians. Fact: only one occasion that the Asian couple in the rearch was treated poorly due to their race. attitudes do not perfectly predict behaviors 三亚万豪酒店2、Cognitive dissonance theory认知失调理论: bad on the idea that people are motivated to have consistant attitudes and behaviors. When they fo not, they experience unpleasant mental tension or dissonance.队徽的含义 Festinger and Carlsmith experiment： Participants performed a boring task and were then asked to lie and tell the next subject (actually a confederate: people who unbeknownst to the participants in the experiment, work with the experiemnter) that they had enjoyed the task—subjects were paid 1 dollar or 20 dollars to lie—contrary to what reinforcement theory would predict, tho subjects who had been paid 1 dollar were found to have significantly more positive attitudes toward the experiment than tho who were paid 20 dollars. The 1 dollar group experienced the dissonance and in order to reduce the dissonance, they changed their attitudes and said that they actually did enjoy the experiment. |
Compliance strategies | Compliance Strategies: strategies to get others to comply with their wishes. 1、 Foot-in-the-door: YesYesYES if you can get people to agree to a small request, they will become more likely to agree to a follow-up request that is larger. 2、 Door-in-the-face: noYES after people refu a large request, they will look more favorably upon a follow-up request that ems, in comparison, much more reasonable. 3、 Norms of reciprocity: Using prents people tend to think that when someone does something nice for them. They ought to do something nice in return. |
Attribution theory | Attribution theory: tries to explain how people determine the cau of what they obrve. Types of attribution: 1、 dispositional/situation attribution 2、 stable/unstable attribution. To explain why Charley get a perfect score on his Math test: The kind of attributions people make are bad on 3 kinds of information(Harold Kelley): 1、 consistency how similarly the individual acts in the same situation over time. 一直都这样，每次考试都高分 an important piece of information to u when determining whether to make a stable or unstable attribution. 2、 distinctiveness其他类型的考试也高分 how similar this situation is to other situations. 3、 Connsus how others in the same situation have responded. 其他人也高分 an important piece of information to u when determining whether to make a person or situation attribution. Self-fulfilling prophecy自我实现预言: expectations we have about others can influence the way tho others behave. Ronthal and Jacobson experiment: Pygmalion in the Classroom They administered a standard IQ test to elementary school childrenrandomly lected a group and informed their teachers that the students were ripe for such intellectual progress明星腋毛at the end of the year, the identified children had incread more than the scores of other classmates. teachers’ expectations that the students would bloom intellectually over the year actually caud the students to outperform their peers. Attributional Bias: 1、 Fundamental attribution error: 1) people tend to overestimate the importance of dispositional factors and underestimate the role of situational factors. 看别人迟到，觉得是个人问题而不考虑情境因素：这人时间观念差，不守时 2) People do not evidence this same tendency in explaining their own behaviors. Since people get to view themlves in countless situations, they are more likely to make situational attribuions about themlves. 看自己迟到，觉得是情境因素：塞车、天气等 3) Cross-cultural study: Collectivist集体主义 VS individualistic cultures个人主义 people in collectivist cultures are less likely to commit the fundamental attribution error, perhaps becau they are more attuned to the ways that different situations influence their own behavior. 集体主义更不容易出现fundamental attribution error 2、 Fal-connsus effect: the tendency for people to overestimate the number of people who agree with them. 自己不喜欢看恐怖片，觉得大部分人也不喜欢 3、 Self-rving bias: the tendency to take more credit for good outcomes than for bad ones. 好的结果归功于自己，坏的结果归功于其他人或环境。 4、 Just-world bias: a bias toward thinking that bad things happen to bad people. 恶人恶报 |
Stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination | 1、 Stereotype刻板印象/成见: May be negative or positive ideas about what members of different groups are like. People who distinguish between stereotypes and group schemata argue that the former are more rigid and more difficult to change than the latter. 2、 Prejudice偏见: 会计杀手 an underved, usually negative, attitude toward a group of people. Ethnocentrism: the belief that one’s culture is superior to others. Is a specific kind of prejudice. People look down upon others who don’t dress the same, eat the same foods, or worship the same God in the same way they do. 3、 Discrimination歧视: an action that displays underved, negative attitude toward a group of people. Stereotypes, prejudice and discrimination all reinforce one another: 1、 Out-group homogeneity: people tend to e members of their own group (the in-group) as more diver than members of their groups (the out-groups). 广州人各种各样，上海人都很小气 2、 In-group bias: a preference for members of one’s own group. In-group bias is thought to stem from people’s belief that they themlves are good people. 自己人是好的 Origin of Stereotypes and Prejudice： 1、 the cognitive process of categorization. In-group bias. 2、 Modeling: 家长偏见会影响孩子也产生偏见 But prejudices could be unlearned by exposure to different models. Combating prejudice: Contact theory: contact between two hostile groups will reduce animosity, but only if the group are made to work toward a goal that benefits all and necessitates the participation of all (Superordinate goals). Muzafer Sherif’s camp study: He first divided the campers into two groups and arranged for them to compete—this competition was sufficient to create negative feelings between the groups 先让两组人竞争，产生偏见 Sherif then staged veral camp emergencies that required cooperation—crisis improved relations between the groups. 然后让两组人合作，消除偏见 |
Aggression and antisocial behavior | 1、 Instrumental aggression: when the aggressive act is intended to cure a particular end. 针对性的 2、 Hostile aggression: when the aggressive act has no clear purpo. 普遍的 Cau of human aggression: 1、Freud linked aggression to Thanatos (the death instinct). 2、Sociobiologists suggest that the expression of aggression is adaptive under certain circumstances. 3、Frustration-aggression hypothesis: the feeling of frustration makes aggression more likely. 4、Bandura: The exposure to aggressive models makes people aggressive. |
Prosocial behavior | 1、Prosocial behavior: factors that make people more likely to help one another. 乐于助人 2、Bystander effect旁观者效应: the larger the number of people who witness an emergency situation, less likely any one is to intervene. 越多人围观，越少人帮助 Explanation of Bystander effect 1) Diffusion of responsibility: the larger the group of people who witness a problem, the less responsible any one individual feels to help. People tend to assume that someone el will take action so they need not do so. 劲爆摇滚2) Pluralistic ignorance: people em to decide what constitutes appropriate behavior in a situation by looking to others.类似于从众 |
attraction | 3 factors: We like others who are similar to us (similarity)价值观兴趣爱好等相似, with whom we come into frequent contact (proximity)经常见面经常联系, and who return our positive feeling (reciprocal liking)别人喜欢你. People who are physically attractive(nice-looking) are perceived as having all sorts of positive attributes including better personalities and greater job competence. Self-disclosure: one lf-disclos when one shares a piece of personal information with another.互相了解越多，越容易建立clo relationship |
The influence of others on an individual’s behavior | 1、 Social facilitation: the prence of others improves task performance. 别人在场时自己表现更好 2、 Social impairment: when the task being obrved was a difficult one rather than a simple, well-practiced skill, being watched by others actually hurt performance. 别人在场时自己表现更糟糕，尤其是难的任务 3、 Conformity从众: the tendency of people to go along with the views or actions of others. Solomon Asch’s experiment：判断线条长度的实验 He brought participants into a room of confederates and asked them to make a ries of simple perceptual judgmentshowed three vertical lines of varying sizeasked them to indicate which one was the same length as a different target linethe participant is the last to askon some occasion, all of the confederates gave the same, obviously incorrect judgmentapproximately one-third of the cas when the participants conformed. Conformity is more likely to occur: 1) When a group’s opinion is unanimous 2) When the group has larger than 3 members (but larger than three do not significantly increa the tendency to conform). 3) Has some experts or someone superior to the participants 4、 Obedience服从: participants’ willingness to do what another asks them to do. Milgram’s classic obedience studies：电击实验 Participants were told to take part in a study about teaching and learning and were assigned to teach learner (confederate)participants should deliver an electric shock (increasing by increments of 15V up to 450V) to learners for each incorrect respon (in reality, the confederates was an actor hired by Milgram who pretended to be shocked)over 60% obeyed the experimenter and delivered all the possible shocks. Compliance decread when: 1) bringing participants into clor contact with the confederates (participants can e or feel the learners rather than listen to them). 2) When Milgram left in the middle of the experiment and was replaced by an assistant 3) When other confederates were prent in the room and they objected to the shocks Criticism: Criticized on ethical grounds道德层面 |
Group dynamics | 1、Group norms: rules about how group members should act. （eg队服、班规） Within groups is often a t of specific roles. 2、Social loafing(惰性): the phenomenon when individuals do not put in as much effort when acting as part of a group as they do when acting alone. 一堆人抬桌子VS一个人抬桌子 3、Group polarization(极端化): the tendency of a group to make more extreme decisions than the group members would make individually. 4、Groupthink(by Irving Janis):the tendency for some groups to make bad decisions. 5、De-individuation去个人化: sometimes people get swept up by a group and do things they never would have done if on their own such as looting抢劫 or rioting暴乱. = loss of lf-restraint Zimbardo’s prison experiment：监狱实验 波浪滔天He assigned a group of Stanford students to either play the role of prison guard or prisoner all dresd in uniformsprisoners locker up in the bament and guards put in charge of their treatmentthe experiment had to be ended early becau of the cruel treatment. de-individuation = the effect of roles + situation + feel anonymous and aroud |
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