Unit1CivilEngineering
UNIT 1Civil Engineering
Fundamentally, engineering is an end-product-oriented discipline that is innovative, cost conscious, and mindful of human factors. It is concerned with the creation of new entities, devices or methods of solution: a new process, a new material, an improved power source, a more efficient arrangemenks to accomplish a desired goal or a new structure. Engineering is also more often than not concerned with obtaining economical solutions. And, finally, human safety is always a key consideration. Enineering is concerned with the u of abstract scientific ways of thinking and of defining real world problems. The u of idealizations and the development of procedures for establishing bounds within which behavior can be ascertained are part of that process.
Many problems, by their very nature, cannot be fully described, even after the fact, much less at the outt. Yet acceptable engineering solutions to the problems must be found which satisfy the defined needs. Engineering, then, frequently concerns the determination of possible solutions within a context of limited data. Intuition or judgment is a key factor in establishing possible alternative strategies, process, or solutions. And this, too，is a part of engineering. Becau of the variety and kinds of inp
ut that must be taken into account at each and every stage in the solution process, engineering problems are most often approached in what can be referred to as a hierarchically structured quential decision process. Certain things must be known, and the influence of the ascertained before subquent steps in the solution process can be approached.
Emphasizing one of the concepts alluded to above, engineering is most often concerned with the development of permissible alternatives not necessarily the identification of a unique solution. True, economics, aesthetics, or other considerations may eventually dictate a particular, singular choice from among veral or even many possibilities, but tho acceptable ones will have been established prior to that final stage, using normal engineering methods.
Civil engineering is one of the most diver branches of engineering. The civil engineer plans, designs, constructs, and maintains a large variety of structures and facilities for public, commercial, and industrial u. The structures include residential, office, and factory buildings; highways, railroads, airports, tunnels,bridges, harbors, channels, and pipelines. They also include
many other facilities that are a part of the transportation systems of most countries, as well as wage and waste disposal systems that add to our convenience and safeguard our health.
坐不改姓The term ‘civil engineer’ did not come into u until about 1750，when John Smeaton, the builder of the famous Eddystone lighthou near Plymouth, England,is said to have begun calling himlf a ‘civil engineer’to distinguish himlf from the military engineers of his time. However, the profession of civil engineering is actually as old as civilization.
工作月报怎么写
History
Engineering in ancient civilizations included the construction of bridges,highways, canals, tunnels, irrigation and drainage systems, water supplies, docks,and harbors. Some of the best-known works of early engineers and architects are the Great Pyramid in Egypt (3000 B. C. ); King Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem (about1000B.C. ); the Parthenon in Greece (432 B. C.); the Colosum in Rome (80 A.D. ); and Roman bridges，aqueducts and roads.
Babylonia and Assyria There is evidence that the Babylonians and Assyrianss struggled with problems of hydraulic engineering involving dams, levees, and canals.They solved problems concerning the sides of right triangles, and they also solved simple algebraic equations. They computed areas of land, volumes of masonry, and cubic contents of excavation necessary for canals. The first organized road building was done in the Assyrian Empire, and the first bridge of technical importance was constructed over the Euphrates River in the 6th century B. C.
Egypt In ancient Egypt the simplest mechanical principles and devices were ud to construct many temples and pyramids that are still standing, including the Great Pyramid at Giza and the temple of Amon-Ra at Karnak. The Great Pyramid, 481 feet(146.6 meters) high, is made of 2. 25 million stone blocks having an average weight of more than 1. 5 tons (1. 4 metric tons). Great numbers of men were ud in the construction of such monuments. The Egyptians also made obelisks by cutting huge blocks of stone, some weighing as much as 1 000 tons (900 metric tons). Cutting tools of hard bronze were ud.
The Egyptians built cauways and roads for transporting stone from the quarries to the Nile. The large blocks of stone that were erected by the Egyptians were moved by using levers, inclined planes, rollers, and sledges.
Greece The Egyptians were primarily interested in the know-how of construction;they had
小学生电影very little interest in the theory of the why-for of u. In contrast, the Greeks made great strides in introducing theory into
engineering problems during the 6th to the 3rd centuries B. C. They developed an abstract knowledge of lines,
angles,surfaces, and solids rather than referring to specific objects. The geometric ba for Greek building construction included figures such as the square, rectangle, and triangle.火枪队
The Greek architekton was usually the designer, as well as the builder, of architectural and engineering masterpieces. He was an architect and engineer.Craftsmen, masons, and sculptors worked under his supervision. In the classical period of Greece all important buildings were built of limestone or marble; the Parthenon, for example, was built of marble.
Rome In its heyday in the 2nd century A. D., Rome ruled the world from Scotland to Persia. As the Romans conquered other nations, they borrowed their captives' ideas and practices, and the engineers of Rome are therefore considered developers rather than originators. The Greek influence is especially noticeable.However, the Roman arch construction employing a central keystone at the top indicates that Roman engineers were familiar with masonry under compression although they had no written or formal knowledge about equilibrium of forces.
The work of the Roman architectus, or technical expert, included the design and construction of bridges, aqueducts, highways, and buildings for public u. Under the Romans the art of road building reached its highest level until modern times. Besides the Via Appia，major roads built in Ital
y include the Via Flaminia, the Via Aurelia,and the Via Aemilia. The Romans also built tunnels for roadways, aqueducts and stone arch bridges that are still standing, and harbors, docks, and lighthous.
二年级家长会发言稿Medieval and Renaissance Europe Bridges, cathedrals, and castles were outstanding among the engineering works built during medieval times. For the most part, bridge building continued in the Roman tradition, using stone arches. Benezet built the famous Pont St. -Benezet at Avignon on the Rhone River during the period1178- 1188, and the Old London Bridge was built across the Thames in 1209. During the Renaissance, which began in the 15th century, there was little civil engineering becau of the lack of demand for public works.
France The demands for public works, such as bridges, canals, roads, and water supplies, gradually became very great in Europe, particularly in France and England, as strong nations with centralized governments developed during the 17th and 18th centuries. The transition of the military engineer to civilian pursuits to satisfy the. Demands brought the engineer, and
particularly the civil engineer, great opportunities. During this period, France was the leader in the development of engineering.
月光球Early civil engineers, as a general rule, had very little formal education. The earliest formal training program for civil engineers was that offered by the Ecole des Ponts et Chas to prepare men to rve in the Corps des Ponts et Chas,formed in 1716 for the scienific advancement of bridge building and road building.
Britain After the Napoleonic Wars, engineering leadership developed in Brtain.The first engineering technical society, the Institution of Civil Engineers, was established in Britain in 1818，but it was not incorporated by royal charter until 1828. Civil engineering and architecture became identified as parate professions in about the middle of the 19th century. The architect was recognized for the emphasis he placed on aesthetic aspects of design, while the civil engineer was developing more rationalized, scientific designs. Tradition, intuition, and appearance, which controlled the work of the architect, were of condary consideration to the engineer.
United States The age of engineering in the United States is considered to have begun with the founding of the American Society of Civil Engineers in 1852. It was the time of the opening of the West, and there was tremendous activity in surveying new regions, developing water power, and building railroads and canals. Also, the discovery of rich mineral deposits caud mining to become an important activity.
Many of the early engineering opportunities in the United States were for civilengineers. The success of the Erie Canal (completed in 1825) inspired the construction of many other canals in the eastern part of the country. After a brief heyday, canals were largely displaced by railroads, starting with the completion of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad in 1830.
The building of railroads employed the major portion of the trained civil engineers in the 19th century. However, it was not long until the demands of urban communities in need of water supplies, sanitation, and improved roads and streets required much of the attention of civil engineers. Consulting firms of civil engineers were organized to design municipal facilities throughout the fast developing country.
Schools The first American engineering school was at the United States Military Academy at West Point, established in 1802 as the headquarters of the engineering corps of the Army. It
remained a school entirely for the training of Army engineers until 1866.
A tremendous growth in the number of schools offering engineering cours came after the Civil War with the opening of the
甲壳虫的拼音
West and the expansion of U. S. industry and business. The Morrill Act of 1862 established the land grant principle, and many land-grant colleges and universities developed programs in agriculture and mechanics arts. The mechanics arts of that day have become the engineering of today. Civil engineering was usually the first branch of engineering to be t up becau it was still the only recognized engineering program in the United States.
American Society of Civil Engineers The counterpart of Britain's Institution of Civil Engineers in the United States is the American Society of Civil Engineers(ASCE), the country's first engineering technical society. It was founded on
Nov.5,1852，with James Laurie as its first presiden.It was organized by civil engineers who felt the need for an exchange of "the benefits of their experience and studies".
Modern Civil Engineering
Like other branches of engineering, civil enineering is “...a profession in which a knowledge of the mathematical and natural sciences gained by study, experience and practice is applied with judgment to develop ways to utilize ecomically, the materials and forces of nature for the benefit of mankind”."
The prent-day civil engineer is involved in the exploration of space, the u of thermonuclear energy, the building of ballistic missile facilities, and the control of air and water pollution-the development of materials and systems for accomplishing things that emed quite remote even a decade ago. He will always be needed for the earlier occupations of building bridges, roads, canals, aqueducts, dams, airports, and water distribution systems. Better ways will be developed for accomplishing the old tasks, while new problems of greater complexity will continue to ari to challenge him.
Branches The technical activities of the civil engineer are varied and overlap the ASCE's technical divisions, which are ud to classify areas of civil engineering in the United States. The divisions are air transport, construction, engineering mechanics,highway, hydraulics, irrigation and drainage, pipeline, power, structural, surveying and mapping, urban planning and development, and waterways and harbors.
The enrollments in the technical divisions show that the principal interest of the members of the ASCE is in some pha of building. The activities of all of the technical divisions involve construction, even if that is not their major role. Building remains the basic job of civil engineers.
Education The bachelor of science degree in civil engineering in the United States normally requires four years of study beyond high school graduation, although there are a few schools that have gone to a 5-year curriculum. Recognition has been given to the need for more advanced technical and scientific training, along with a broader education that contains a reasonable amount of social-humanistic content. A 4-year B.S. degree in civil engineering, with four years of appropriate engineering experience,will qualify a young person to apply for registration as a professional engineer.
挺拔的意思是什么Licensing Civil engineers have played a prominent part in protecting the public from the practice of incompetently trained engineers. In the United States, civil engineers also played a leading role in the passage of the first state licensing provision for registering professional engineers in Wyoming in 1907. All states now have such laws; Puerto Rico, the Panama Canal Zone, and the District of Columbia also have licensing provisions. In 1920，the state boards of registration for professional engineers formed an organization called the National Council of State Boards of Engineering Examiners. In 1967, that name was shortened to the National Council of Engineering Examiners.
