1 Unit 1 Biomedical Engineering Lesson 1
心田的意思A History of Biomedical Engineering
In its broadest n, biomedical engineering has been with us for centuries, perhaps even thousands of years. In 2000, German archeologists uncover a 3,000-year-old mummy from Thebes with a wooden prosthetic tied to its foot to rve as a big toe. Rearchers said the wear on the bottom surface suggests that it could be the oldest known limb prosthesis. Egyptians also ud hollow reeds to look and listen to the internal goings on of the human anatomy. In 1816, modesty prevented French physician Rene Laennec from placing his ear next to a young woman’s bare chest, so he rolled up a newspaper and listened through it, triggering the idea for his invention that led to today’s ubiquitous stethoscope.
广义上来说，生物医学工程与我们已经几个世纪以来，甚至数千年。2000年，德国考古学家发现一个3000岁高龄的木乃伊从底比斯木制假肢与作为大脚趾的脚。研究人员说，穿底部表面上表明它可能是最古老的下肢义肢。埃与人也用空心的芦苇外观和听人类解剖学的部行为。1816年，谦虚阻止法国医生雷奈克把他的耳朵旁边一个年轻女人的裸胸，所以他卷起报纸和听它，引发他的发明的想法，导致今天无处不在的听诊器。
No matter what the date, biomedical engineering has provided advances in medical technology to improve human health. Biomedical engineering achievements range from early devices, such as crutches, platform shoes, wooden teeth, and the ever-changing cache of instruments in a doctor’s black bag, to more modern marvels, including pacemakers, the heart-lung machine, dialysis machines, diagnostic equipment, imaging technologies of every kind, and artificial organs, implants and advanced prosthetics. The National Academy of Engineering estimates that there are currently about 32,000 bioengineers working in various areas of health technology.
无论什么日期，生物医学工程提供了先进的医疗技术来改善人类健康。生物医学工程成就围从早期设备，如拐杖，松糕鞋，木制的牙齿，和不断变化的缓存工具在医生的黑包，更现代的奇迹，包括心脏起搏器、人工心肺机，透析机器，诊断设备，各种成像技术，和人造器官，移植和先进的假肢。美国国家工程学院的估计，目前大约有32000生物各领域工作的卫生技术。
As an academic endeavor, the roots of biomedical engineering reach back to early developments in electrophysiology, which originated about 200 years ago. An early landmark in electrophysiology occurred in 1848 when DuBois Reymond published the widely recognized Ueber die tierische Elektrizitaet. Raymond’s contemporary, Hermann von Helmholtz, is credited with applying engineering principles to a problem in physiology and dentifying the resistance of muscle and nervou
s tissues to direct current.
作为一个学术努力，生物医学工程的根源与早期电生理学的发展，起源于约200年前。电生理学的早期具有里程碑意义的发生在1848年当杜布瓦Reymond发表了公认Ueber死tierische Elektrizitaet。赫尔曼··雷蒙德•当代亥姆霍兹因应用工程原则问题在生理学和dentifying电阻直流的肌肉和神经组织。
情侣头像个性网In 1895, Wilhelm Roentgen accidentally discovered that a cathode-ray tube could make a sheet of paper coated with barium platinocyanide glow, even when the tube and the paper were in parate rooms. Roentgen decided the tube must be emitting some kind of penetrating rays, which he called “X”rays for unknown. This t off a flurry of rearch into the tissue-penetrating and tissue-destroying properties of X-rays, a line of rearch that ultimately produced the modern array of medical imaging technologies and virtually eliminated the need for exploratory surgery.
1895年，威廉伦琴偶然发现，阴极射线管可以与氰亚铂酸盐钡一纸涂布发光，即使管和纸是在单独的房间。伦琴决定管必须发出某种穿透光线，他称为“X”光线不明。这引发了一系列tissue-penetrating和专治属性的研究x射线，一系列的研究，最终得出了现代医学影像技术和几乎消除了探索性手术的必要性。
Biomedical engineering’s unique mix of engineering, medicine and science emerged 2 alongside bi
离职的英文ophysics and medical physics early this century. At the outt, the three were virtually indistinguishable and none had formal training programs.
生物医学工程的独特工程、医学和科学出现2与生物物理学和医学物理学在本世纪初。开始的时候，三人几乎无法区分，没有正式的培训计划。
Between World War I and World War II a number of laboratories undertook rearch in biophysics and biomedical engineering. Only one offered formal training: the Oswalt Institute for Physics in Medicine, established in 1921 in Frankfurt, Germany, forerunner of the Max Planck Institute for Biophysics.
在第一次世界大战和第二次世界大战的实验室进行了生物物理学和生物医学工程的研究。只有一个提供正式的培训:Oswalt物理医学研究所，成立于1921年在法兰克福，德国马克斯普朗克生物物理学的先驱。
The Institute’s founder, Friedrich Dessauer, pioneered rearch into the biological effects of ionizing radiation. The Oswalt Institute and the University in Frankfurt soon established formal ties that led to a Ph.D. program in biophysics by 1940. Rearch topics included the effects of X-rays on tissues and the electrical properties of tissues. The staff of 20 included university lecturers, rearch fellows,
assistants and technicians.
研究所的创始人，弗里德里希·德绍，率先研究电离辐射的生物效应。Oswalt研究所和大学在法兰克福很快建立了正式的关系，在1940年导致了生物物理学博士学位项目。研究主题包括x射线的影响在组织和组织的电特性。员工20包括大学教师、研究员、助理和技术人员。Following the Second World War, administrative committees began forming around the combined areas of engineering, medicine and biology. A biophysical society was formed in Germany in 1943. Five years later, the first conference of engineering in medicine and biology convened in the United States, under the auspices of the Institute of Radio Engineers (forerunner of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), the American Institute for Electrical Engineering, and the Instrument Society of America. It was a small meeting. About 20 papers were delivered to an audience of fewer than 100. The first 10 annual conferences paid most of their attention to ionizing radiation and its implications. As conference topics broadened, so did attendance. The topic of the 1958 conference, Computers in Medicine and Biology, drew 70 papers and more than 300 attendees. By 1961, conference attendance swelled to nearly 3,000.
稳步推进第二次世界大战之后，行政委员会开始在工程领域相结合，形成医学和生物学。生物物理协会于1943年在德国成立。五年后，工程在医学和生物学的第一次会议召开，在美国的支持下的无线电工程师学
会(电气和电子工程师协会的前身)，美国电子工程研究所和美国社会工具。这是一个小型的会议。大约20个文件是少于100的传递给观众。前10年会大部分关注电离辐射与其影响。作为会议主题扩大，出席。1958会议的主题、计算机在医学和生物学，吸引了70篇论文和70多名与会者。参加会议，到1961年增加到近3000人。
The 1951 IRE convention generated enough interest in medical electronics that the IRE formed a Professional Group on Medical Electronics. An early action of this group was to collaborate on the Annual Conference on Electronic Instrumentation and Nucleonics in Medicine, which the AIEE[1] began about 1948. In 1954, the AIEE, the IRE and the ISA formed the Joint Executive
Committee on Medicine and Biology, which began organizing the annual conferences.
1951愤怒的约定产生足够的兴趣，医疗电子产品的愤怒形成一个专业小组医疗电子产品。本集团的早期行动是合作的年度会议上电子仪器和原子核物理学在医学、AIEE[1]大约始于1948年。1954年,AIEE，愤怒和ISA形成联合执行委员会医学和生物学，开始组织的年度会议。
In 1963, the AIEE and the IRE merged to form the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineering. Contributing forces for the merger were the members of the AIEE and IRE technical committees for biomedical engineering. Most members favored it and had been collaborating with their counterparts
蒙田随笔集西晋in the other society for years.
1963年,AIEE和愤怒合并形成了电气与电子工程学院。贡献力量的合并是成员AIEE和愤怒为生物医学工程技术委员会。大多数成员支持，在其他社会和同行合作多年。
At the merger it was decided to carry over to the IRE system of Professional Groups. The IRE Professional Group on Medical Electronics became the IEEE Professional Group on 3 Bio-Medical Engineering (PGBME), the name change reflecting the fact that many members, particularly former AIEE members, were concerned with non-electronic topics.
Also in the early 1960s the NIH[2] took three significant steps to support biomedical engineering. First, it created a program-project committee under the General Medical Sciences Institute to evaluate program-project applications, many of which rved biophysics and biomedical engineering. Then it t up a biomedical engineering training study ction to evaluate training-grant applications, and it established two biophysics study ctions. A special “floating”study ction procesd applications in bioacoustics and biomedical engineering. Many applications did not make it to the biomedical engineering study ction and ended up in radiology, physiology or other panels.
The diversity of work in biomedical engineering and the diversity of background of the people contrib
uting to this field made it difficult for a single organization to reprent everyone[3]. In the 1960s there were efforts by some leaders of the PGBME, which became the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, to achieve greater autonomy within the IEEE in order to accommodate a more diver membership. Becau there were quite a few professional groups, veral umbrella organizations were established to facilitate cooperation. In the late 1960s the Alliance for Engineering in Medicine and Biology was formed. In 1968, the Biomedical Engineering Society was formed to give "equal status to reprentatives of both biomedical and engineering interests and promote the increa of biomedical engineering knowledge and its utilization". Initially, the membership of the society consisted of 171 founding members and 89 charter members. Membership now numbers nearly 1,200 professional biomedical engineers, with another 1,600 student members.
在合并决定继续愤怒系统的专业团体。医疗电子产品成为了IEEE愤怒专业小组3生物医学工程专业小组(PGBME)，许多成员名称更改反映了事实，尤其是前AIEE成员关心非电子的话题。
也在1960年代初美国国立卫生研究院[2]花了三个重要的步骤来支持生物医学工程。首先，它创建了一个项目委员会一般医学科学研究所评估项目应用程序，其中很多生物物理学和生物医学工程。然后建立了一个生物医学工程训练研究部分，评估培训应用，和它建立了两个生物物理学研究部分。一个特
殊的“漂浮”在生物声学研究部分加工应用和生物医学工程。许多应用程序没有生物医学工程研究部分，最终在放射学，生理学或其他面板。
在生物医学工程工作的多样性和背景的多样性导致这一领域使一个组织难以代表每个人[3]。在1960年代有PGBME的一些领导人，努力成为IEEE工程在医学和生物学的社会，为了实现更大的自治权在IEEE为了适应更多元化的会员。因为有不少专业团体，建立了几个伞组织促进合作。在1960年代后期工程在医学和生物学联盟成立。1968年，生物医学工程学会成立给“地位平等的代表生物医学和工程利益和促进生物医学工程知识的增加，其利用率”。最初，社会的成员包括171创始成员和89宪章》的成员。现在会员数量近1200专业生物医学工程师,1600年与另一个学生成员。
The society awarded the Alza Distinguished Lectureship from 1971 to 1993 to encourage the theory and practice of biomedical engineering. The BMES Distinguished Lectureship Award was founded in 1991 to recognize outstanding achievements in biomedical engineering. Other honors include a young investigator award, the BMES Distinguished Service Award, and the Presidential Award, established in 1999 to enable BMES presidents to recognize extraordinary leadership within the society.
In addition to the professional societies, the field of biomedical engineering received a large ally whe
n The Whitaker Foundation was created in 1975, upon the death of U.A. Whitaker. As an engineer and philanthropist, Whitaker recognized that major contributions to improving human health would come from the merging of medicine and engineering. Since its inception, the foundation has primarily supported interdisciplinary medical rearch and 4 education, with the principal focus being on biomedical engineering. The foundation has become the nation’s largest private benefactor of biomedical engineering. By 2002, it had contributed more than $615 million to universities and medical schools to support faculty rearch, graduate students, program development, and construction of facilities.
In 1990 the National Science Foundation and The Whitaker Foundation obrved that in spite of the numerous academic programs calling themlves "bioengineering" or "biomedical engineering", there was no structure for this widely diversified field. Becau many advances in biomedical engineering were generated through the collaboration of engineers and clinical scientists in a number of different fields, the evolution of biomedical engineering as a profession in the 1970s and 1980s was characterized by the emergence of parate professional societies with a focus on applications within their own field.
协会授予Alza杰出讲师职务从1971年到1993年，鼓励生物医学工程的理论和实践。博雅杰出讲师职务
奖表彰杰出成就的成立于1991年在生物医学工程。其他荣誉还包括一个年轻调查员奖,bme杰出服务奖，和总统奖，成立于1999年，使bme总统认识到非凡的领导在社会。除了专业的社会，生物医学工程领域时收到一大笔盟友惠特克基金会成立于1975年，在U.A.惠特克的死亡。作为一个工程师和慈善家，惠特克承认，改善人类健康主要贡献来自医学和工程学的合并。自成立以来，该基金会主要支持跨学科医学研究和教育，主要集中在生物医学工程上。基金会已成为美国最大的私人捐助者生物医学工程。到2002年，它已经贡献了超过6.15亿美元的大学和医学院支持教师研究，研究生，项目开发和建设的设施。
1990年，美国国家科学基金会和惠特克基金会指出，尽管许多学术项目自称“生物工程”或“生物医学工程”，没有结构广泛多样化的领域。因为许多生物医学工程的进步通过协作生成工程师和临床科学家在许多不同的领域，生物医学工程的发展作为一个行业在1970年代和1980年代的独立的专业协会，专注于应用程序的出现在自己的领域。
As a step toward unification, the American Institute for Medical and Biological Engineering was created in 1992. AIMBE was born from the realization that an umbrella organization was needed to address the issues of public policy and public and professional education that compri the engineering sciences. Ten societies saw the virtue of this approach and formed the original members of AIMBE. Today, its 17 society members work to "establish a clear and comprehensive identity for th
e field of medical and biological engineering, and improve intersociety relations and cooperation within the field of medical and biological engineering".教育的理想与信念
The earliest academic programs began to take shape in the 1950s. Their establishment was aided by Sam Talbot of Johns Hopkins University, who petitioned the National Institutes of Health for funding to support a group discussion of approaches to teaching biomedical engineering. Ultimately three universities were reprented in the discussions: The Johns Hopkins University, the University of Pennsylvania and the University of Rochester. The three institutions, along with Drexel University, were among the first to win important training grants for biomedical engineering from the National Institutes of Health.
In 1973, discussions started about broadening the ba of Pennsylvania’s graduate Department of Biomedical Electronic Engineering by including other activities and adopting and undergraduate curriculum. Its prent graduate program is an extension of the earlier one.
关于水的议论文During the late 1960s and early 1970s, development at other institutions followed similar paths, but occurred more rapidly in most cas due to the growing opportunities of the field and in respon to the important NIH initiative to support the development of the field. The earlier institutions were soon
followed by a cond generation of biomedical engineering programs and departments. The included: Boston University in 1966; Ca Western 5 Rerve University in 1968; Northwestern University in 1969; Carnegie Mellon, Duke University, Rensslaer and a joint program between Harvard and MIT[4] in 1970; Ohio State University and University of Texas, Austin, in 1971; Louisiana Tech, Texas A&M and the Milwaukee School of Engineering in 1972; and the University of Illinois, Chicago in 1973.
一步统一，美国医学和生物工程研究所成立于1992年。AIMBE诞生于意识到伞组织需要解决问题的公共政策和公专业教育，包括这些工程科学。十个社会看到这种方法的优点，形成了原始AIMBE的成员。今天,17个社会成员努力”建立一个清晰的和全面的医学和生物工程领域的身份，并改善intersociety合作关系在医学和生物工程领域”。
最早的学术项目在1950年代开始成型。他们的建立是在约翰霍普金斯大学的萨姆·塔尔博特的帮助下，他请求美国国立卫生研究院的资金支持生物医学工程教学方法的小组讨论。最终三所大学在这些讨论代表：约翰霍普金斯大学，宾夕法尼亚大学和罗彻斯特大学的。这三个机构，随着德雷塞尔大学，是首批获得重要的培训基金从美国国立卫生研究院生物医学工程。1973年，开始讨论扩大宾夕法尼亚的基础生物医学电子工程系毕业的包括其他活动，采用和本科课程。目前的研究生课程是早期的一种扩展。
在1960年代末和1970年代初，发展其他机构沿着这条路走下去，但发生更快在大多数情况下，由于日益增长的机会，为了应对重要NIH行动来支持这一领域的发展。早些时候机构很快就接着第二代生物医学工程项目和部门。包括：波士顿大学;1966年5凯斯西储大学;1968年西北大学;1969年卡基梅隆大学，杜克大学,Rensslaer和哈佛和麻省理工学院联合项目[4];1970年俄亥俄州立大学和德克萨斯大学奥斯汀;1971年路易斯安那理工大学，德克萨斯A&M大学和密尔沃基工程学院;1972年1973年芝加哥和伊利诺斯州大学的。
