语⾔学
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nguage: it is, namely, a human speech; the ability to communicate by this
means; a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning is attributed, ud for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings; the written reprentation of such a system.
2.Linguistics: it is usually defined as the science of language or, alternatively, as
the scientific study of language.
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petence: unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a
language.
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ngue: the language system shared by a “speech community.”
5.Phonetics:the study of how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and
perceived. It can be divided into three main areas of study ---- articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics and工伤报销流程
perceptual/auditory phonetics.
6.Consonant: a major category of sound gments, produced by a closure in the
vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction.
7.Vowel: a major category of sound gments, produced without obstruction of
the vocal tract so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or the no.
8.Phoneme: a unit of explicit sound contrast. If two sounds in a language make a
contrast between two different words, they are said to be different phonemes.
9.broad transcription:
10.Syllable:an important unit in the study of supragmentals. A syllable must
have a nucleus or peak, which is often the task of a vowel or possibly that of a syllabic consonant, and often involves an optional t of consonants before and/or after the nucleus.
11.Root: refers to the ba form of a word that cannot be further analyzed
without loss of identity. That is to say, it is that part of the word that is left when all the affixes are removed. Apparently, all words contain a root morpheme. And roots can be further classified into free root morpheme and bound root morpheme. 12.Stress:the degree of force ud in producing a syllable. When a syllable is
寸有所长produced with more force and is therefore more “prominent”, it is a “stresd”
syllable in contrast to a less prominent, “unstresd” syllable.
13.Blending: is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are
blended by joining together the initial part of the first word and the final part of the cond word, or by only joining the initial parts of the two words.
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pound: refers to the words that consist of more than one lexical
morpheme or the way to join two parate words to produce a single form, such as classroom, mailbox, fingerprint, sunburn. In terms of the word class of compounds, there are Noun compounds (e.g. daybreak), Verb compounds (e.g. brainwash), Adjective dutyfree) and Preposition compounds
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(e.g. throughout). Meanwhile compounds can be further divided into endocentric
compound and exocentric compound in terms of its structural organization. The head of a nominal or adjectival endocentric compound is derived from a Verb, and it is usually the ca that the first member is a participant of the process verb. Consider the following two examples: lf-control and virus-nsitive. The exocentric adjectives come from V+N and V+A.
15.Semantics: the subject concerning the study of meaning is called mantics.
16.Meaning: it is communicated through the u of language.
17.Synonymy:it is the technical name for one of the n relation between
linguistic units, namely the sameness relation.
18.Constituent: it is a term ud in structural ntence analysis for every linguistic
unit, which is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Constituents can be joined together with other constituents to form larger units.
19.IC analysis:to dismantle a grammatical construction in this way is called IC
analysis.
20.Construal: it is the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in
alternate ways through specificity, different mental scanning, directionality, vantage point, figure-ground gregation etc. 21.Morphology: it is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies
the minimal units if meaning-morphemes and word-formation procesd.
22.Morpheme: it is the smallest unit of language in regard to the relationship
between sounding and meaning, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning. And morphemes cannot be further analyzed.
Answer the following questions as comprehensive as possible. Give examples if necessary.
1.What are the design features of language and list the frequently discusd four features.
A: 1). The features that define our human languages can be called design features.
2).four features: arbitrariness; duality; creativity; and displacement.
2. List 3 cavities of the vocal tract involved in speech production and give at least 9 terms of the speech organs according to the left diagram.
A: 1) the pharynx, no, and mouth.
2) upper teeth ridge, lower teeth ridge, mandible, nasal cavity, hard
palate, alveolar ridge, tip blade front, tongue, soft palate, back,
root, uvula, pharynx, epiglottis, larynx, vocal folds, trachea, lungs.
3. What are the syntactic relations?
A: syntactic relations can be analyd into three kinds, namely, positional relations, relations of substitutability, and relations of co-occurrence.
4. What are the properties of subjects in English?
A: In English, the subject of a ntence is often said to the doer of the action, while the object is the person or thing acted upon by the doer.
1)Word order: Subject ordinarily precedes the verb in a statement such as
“Sally collects stamps”.
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2)Pronoun forms: the first and third person pronouns in English appear in
a special form when the pronoun is a subject. This form is not ud
when the pronoun occurs in other positions: He loves me. / I love him.
3)Agreement with verb: in the simple prent ten, an –s is added to the
verb when a third person subject in singular. However, the number and person of the object or any other element in the ntence have no effect at all on the form of the verb: She angers him. /they anger him./ She
angers them.
4)Content question: if the subject is replaced by a question word, the rest
of the ntence remains unchanged. But when any other element of the ntence is replaced by a question word, an auxiliary verb must appear before the subject. If the basic ntence does not contain an auxiliary
verb, we must inrt did or do(es) immediately after the question word.
5)Tag question: It is ud to ek confirmation of a statement. It always
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contains a pronoun which refers back to the subject, and never to any
other element in the ntence.
5. Give a brief introduction of G. Leech’s 7 types of meaning in his Semantics in 1974.
A:
6. What are three subtypes of antonymy and exemplify(例证) them.
A: there are three main subtypes: gradable antonymy (e.g. so-so or average), complementary antonymy (boy and girl), and conver antonymy (buy and ll).
7. List the main branches of linguistics.
A: it is generally agreed that linguistics should include at least five parameters, namely, phonological, morphological, syntactic, mantic and pragmatic.
8. What is a root and analyze the morphemic structure of word “Internationalism”?
A: Root refers to the ba form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without loss of identity. That is to say, it is that part of the word that is left when all the affixes are removed. In the world inter
nationalism, after the removal of inter-, -al and –ism, the part left is the root nation. Apparently, all words contain a root morpheme. And roots can be further classified into free
root morpheme and bound root morpheme.
9. What is IC analysis? What are immediate constituents and ultimate constituents?
A:1) IC analysis: to dismantle a grammatical construction in this way is called IC analysis.
2) Immediate constituent analysis or IC analysis is a method of ntence analysis.
10. What is the difference between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes?
A: First, inflectional affixes are generally less productive than derivational affixes. Second, inflectional affixes do not change the word class of the word they attach to, whereas derivational affixes might, as the relationship between small and smallness. Third, that whether one should add inflectional affixes or not depends very often on other factors within the phar or ntence at stake.
VI. Theories application
1. Draw the tree diagram of the following ntences.
(1) The boy was crying.
(2) Shut the door.
A: 1) ((The) (boy))((was)(crying)).
2) (Shut)((the)(door)).
2. Disambiguate the following ambiguous ntences.
(1) The chicken is too hot to eat.
(2) Flying planes can be dangerous.
A: There are two meanings to ex.1):a) The chicken meat is too hot, so it cannot be eaten at the moment; b) The chicken feels so hot that it cannot start eating and needs to calm down first.
The ambiguity of ex. 2) comes from “flying planes”. It can be deciphered as “the planes that is flying” or “to fly planes”.
3. Analyze the following constructions and decide what kind of construction they belong to.
(1) The two oldest stone bridges
(2) Kick the ball
A:
4. Combine the following pairs of ntences. Make the cond ntence of each pair into a relative clau, and then embed it into the first.
惠州惠阳区(1) The comet appears every twenty years. Dr. Okada discovered the comet.收据样本
(2) Everyone respected the quarterback. The quarterback refud to give up.
A: 1) The comet that Dr. Okada discovered appears every twenty years.
2) Everyone respected the quarterback who refud to give up.
5. Analyze the following words and decide how they are formed.
(1) Coke, colon
(2) brunch, smog
A:
2) smoke + fog------- smog breakfast +lunch--------brunch
6. Read the following paragraph and list all the function words you can find. Give the percentage of function words in the paragraph.
She was a small woman, old and wrinkled. When she started washing for us, she was already past venty. Most Jewish women of her age were sickly, weak, broken in body. But this washwoman, small and thin as she was, possd a strength that came from generations of peasant ancestors. Mother would count out to her a bag of laundry that had accumulated over veral weeks. She would lift the heavy bag, load it on her narrow shoulders, and carry it the long way home.
A: The function words in this passage include: she, was, a , and, when, she, for, she, was, past, of, her, were, in, but, this, and, as, she, a, that, from, of, would, to, her, a, of, that, had, over, she, would, the, it, on, her, and, it, and the. Altogether there are 85 words in this passage, and 40 of them are function words. Then the percentage of function words in this passage is
40/85=47%.
7. Make a list of nouns from the following words that –s can be attached to.
epiphany foot hat hou kitchen ox phenomenon region sheep tomato
A: hat hou kitchen region
8. Analyze the syllabic structure of the word “cracked”
A:
