Nanofiber Webs from Electrospinning
1. CHARACTERISTICS OF SMALL FIBERS IN AIR FILTRATION -
THEORY
Small fibers in the submicron range, in comparison with larger ones, are well known to provide better filter efficiency at the same pressure drop in the interception and inertial impaction regimes. W.C. Hinds shows such effect by assuming non-slip flow at fiber surface [1]. Timothy H. Grafe, Kristine M. Graham
Donaldson Company Inc. Minneapolis, MN, USA
While smaller fiber size leads to higher pressure drop, interception and inertial impaction efficiencies will increa faster, more than compensating for the pressure drop increa. Thus, in the particle size of interest, i.e., from submicron and up, better filter efficiency can be achieved at the same pressure drop, or converly, the same filter efficiency at lower pressure drop can be achieved with smaller fiber sizes.
ABSTRACT
Elecotrospun nanofibers, with fiber diameters of 0.25 microns have been ud in industrial, consumer and defen filtration applications for more than twenty years. Electrospun nanofibers have fiber diameters that are 5-10 times smaller than the smallest meltblown fibers available. Recently, Ultra-Web® nanofiber filter media from Donaldson Company has become available to the non-wovens and filtration industries for a broad range of filtration applications.
For nanometer-scale fibers, a cond factor has to be taken into account: the effect of slip flow at the fiber surface [2]. Filtration theory generally relies on an assumption of continuous flow around the fiber, with a no-slip condition at the fiber surface. The theory starts to become less valid when the scale of the fiber becomes small enough that the molecular movements of the air molecules are significant in relation to the size of the fibers and the flow field. Using a slip-flow model at the fiber surface can extend the uful range of continuous flow theory. The Knudn number is ud to describe the importance of the molecular movements of air molecules at the fiber surface to the overall flow field. The Knudn number can be written as
Nanofibers provide dramatic increas in filtration efficiency at relatively small (and in some cas immeasurable) decreas in permeability. In many laboratory tests and actual operating environments, nanofiber filter media also demonstrate improved filter life and more contaminant hold
ing capacity.
Nanofiber filter media have enabled new levels of filtration performance in veral diver applications with a broad range of environments and contaminants. The performance of nanofiber media in a mining vehicle cabin air filter will be discusd.
f
r Kn λ
=
where λ is the gas mean free path (the dimension of the non-continuous nature of the molecules), and r f is the radius of the fiber. When Kn becomes non-neglible, the continuous flow theory, which does not take into account the molecular nature of air, starts to become less valid. While there is no exact Kn above which slip flow will prevail, it generally needs to be considered when Kn > 0.1, and definitely needs to be considered when Kn is around 0.25. For air at standard conditions, the mean free path is 0.066 microns; therefore, for fibers with diameters smaller than 0.5 microns, slip flow must be considered. In
Figure 1. Ultra-Web® Nanofiber Filter Media
slip flow, the air velocity at the fiber surface is assumed to be non-zero. Due to the slip at the fiber surface, drag force on a fiber is smaller than that in the ca of non-slip flow, which translates into lower pressure drop. On the other hand, the slip flow makes the portion of the air flowing near the fiber surface larger than that in the ca of non-slip flow, which translates into more particles traveling near the fiber, resulting in higher diffusion, interception and inertial impaction efficiencies. The effects of slip flow on pressure drop and efficiency can be further illustrated by applying mathematical equations such as tho by Stechkina and Pich [3, 4] in their valid range, although such results are not prented here as they are beyond the scope of this paper. Thus, the benefit of
achieving better filter efficiency at the same pressure drop actually accelerates when fiber sizes are less than 0.5 microns.
Therefore, due to the dependence of efficiency and pressure drop on fiber sizes, and due to the benefit of having slip flow at the fiber surface, small fiber sizes such as tho of 0.2 to 0.3 micron diameter are highly desired for filtration applications.
2. METHOD FOR MAKING
NANOFIBERS
Polymeric nanofibers can be made using the electrospinning process, which has been described in the literature [5] and in patents [6]. Electrospinning us an electric field to draw a polymer solution from the tip of a capillary to a collector. A voltage is applied to the polymer solution, which caus a jet of the solution to be drawn toward a grounded collector. The fine jets dry to form polymeric fibers, which can be collected on a web. The electrospinning process has been documented using a variety of fiber forming polymers [7, 8]. By choosing a suitable polymer and solvent system, nanofibers with diameters in the range of 40-2000 nm can be made.
3. EXAMPLES OF ELECTROSPUN
NANOFIBERS
Scanning electron micrographs (SEMs) are generally ud to characterize electrospun nanofibers. As the fibers themlves have a small diameter, the thickness of the nanofiber web can likewi be quite small, with a thickness of four 250 nm nanofiber diameters approaching only one micron. The thin web has limited mechanical properties that preclude the u of conventional web handling and filter pleating equipment. As a result, nanofiber webs have been applied onto various substrates. Substrates are lected to provide appropriate mechanical properties to allow pleating, filter fabrication, and durability in u. Substrates are often chon to remble conventional filter materials, which allows the u of conventional filter media pleating and element handling equipment.
Figure 1 is a photomicrograph of commercially-available nanofibers electrospun onto a cellulo substrate for air filtration applications. The nanofiber diameter is approximately 250 nanometers, as compared to the cellulosic fiber structure, with diameters exceeding 10 microns.
生日祝福英文Controlling parameters of electrospinning allows the generation of webs with different filtration characteristics. Additionally, Figure 2 shows a very light layer of nanofibers.
Figure 2. Nanofiber web density can be adapted and controlled. This is a low density web.
The filtration properties of nanofibers have been discusd theoretically, and a process for making them has been described. The filtration properties of nanofibers can also be shown visually by reviewing SEM’s of nanofiber media that have been expod to contamination. Figure 3 shows a cellulo media and a cellulo/nanofiber composite media (with nanofibers on the upstream side), both of which have been loaded to the same pressure drop (0.5” w.g.) with ISO Fine test dust. ISO Fine test dust is commonly ud for testing engine air cleaners, and
contains particles in the size range of 0.7 – 70 microns. The cellulo sample shows depth loading and relatively few submicron particles, while the composite sample shows loading at the nanofiber s家常菜图片真实
urface and a significant quantity of submicron particles captured. The composite sample is holding 2.5 times more mass of dust than the cellulo sample [9].
Figure 3. ISO Fine loading on conventional cellulo media (top) and nanofiber media (bottom). Fig
ure 4 shows a nanofiber composite media sample that has been expod to a submicron sodium chloride contaminant, with particles in the size range of 0.01 to 0.5 microns. The nanofibers are covered with the salt particles, while the larger substrate fiber has collected relatively few of the submicron particles [10]. Incread filtration efficiency for submicron contaminants can be achieved with nanofibers.
描写梅花的诗
Figure 4 Sun-micron salt crystals preferentially collect on nanofibers (compared to large spunbond fiber in upper left) due to smaller fiber diameter.
4. FILTRATION APPLICATIONSqq头像黑白
创业交流
USING NANOFIBERS Nanofiber webs have been ud in a variety of air filtration applications. This ction will discuss some of the unique attributes of nanofibers through an examination of their performance.
Nanofiber Filter Media in Cabin Air
Filtration of Mining Vehicles Airborne contamination in the personnel cabins of mining equipment is of concern to mining workers, mining companies and government agencies such as the Mine Safety and Health Association (MSHA). Recent work with mining equipment manufacturers and the MSHA has shown that nanofiber filter media can further reduce cabin dust concentration compared to standard (wet-laid cellulo) filter media [11, 12]. Two gravimetric particle sampling devices were ud on a Caterpillar 992G wheel loader, one placed just inside the cab and the other just outside the cab, both very near the cab fresh air filter. The performance of standard cellulo intake and recirculation filters
were compared with composite cellulo/nanofiber intake and recirculation filters on subquent days in August, 1998 at Kaufman North Pit in Clearfield County, Pennsylvania. A significant increa in filter efficiency was obrved with the installation of the nanofiber composite filters, thus providing an improvement in worker protection (Figure 5).
Filter Outside Dust mg/m3 Inside Dust mg/m3 Dust
Reduction, %
Cellulo sub-micron
0.031 0.01 68% respirable (>1 micron)
0.441 0.06 86%
Ultra-Web(R) sub-micron
0.037 0.003 92% respirable (>1 micron)
0.361
0.025
93%
Figure 6 Similar life with nanofiber filter and
“standard” filter, while nanofiber filter achieves substantial efficiency increa shown in Figure 5
Figure 5. U of nanofiber filter resulted 4 times less penetration of sub-micron dust.
5. PRODUCTION AND QUALITY CONTROL OF NANOFIBER WEBS
排骨的做法
For life testing, panel filters were constructed to the same dimensions as tho ud in the field test: 26.12” x 5.37” x 2.19”, containing 186 two-inch deep pleats. Four filters were tested, two containing the standard media and two with the high efficiency nanofiber media .
The production process and quality control of electrospinning nanofiber webs prent some special challenges. The electrospinning process itlf has many important technical parameters that must be understood and controlled. The include polymer and solvent lection; electrical field control; solvent evaporation and management; and nanofiber web formation and characterization
SAE Fine dust was fed at a rate of 2.1 g/min to each filter element. Pressure drop data as a function of the amount of dust fed was recorded, and is prented in Figure 6. Testing was terminated when the pressure drop of the filter element exceeded 1.5” w.g. (38 mm Aq), which is the pressure drop at which mining cab filters are typically changed or cleaned. It can be en that the increa in particle removal efficiency detailed in Figure 7 was achieved without a corresponding decrea in filter life or significant increa in initial pressure drop. Anecdotal evidence from field trials supports the data prented here.
Quality control of the nanofiber web is also important. Becau of the small fibers and low basis wei
ghts, traditional on-line QC methodologies ud for conventional non-wovens may not be appropriate and novel methods have been developed [13]. A patented method has been successfully implemented to provide real-time information about web consistency in the both the machine and cross-machine direction [14].炝拌海带丝
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Portions of this work were previously published [15, 16].
REFERENCES
[1] Hinds, W.C., Aerosol Technology, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1982.
[2] Brown, R.C., Air Filtration, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1993.
[3] Stechkina, I.B., A.A. Kirsch and N.A. Fuchs, “Studies on fibrous aerosol filter -- IV calculation of aerosol deposition in model filters in the range of maximum penetration,” Ann. Occup. Hug. Vol. 12, 1-8, 1969.
[4] Pich, J. “Gas filtration theory,” Filtration -- Principles and Practices, edited by M.J. Matteson and
C. Orr, Chapter 1, 1-132, 1987.
[5] Tsai, P.P., Schreuder-Gibson, H., Gibson, P. “Different electrostatic methods for making electret filters”, Journal of Electrostatics, Volume 54, 2002. [6] Formhals, A., “Process and Apparatus for Preparing Artificial Threads”, US Patent 1,975,504, October 2, 1934.
[7] Chun, I., Reneker, D. H., Fong, H., Fang, X., Deitzel, J., Beck Tan, N., Kearns, K.,“Carbon Nanofibers from Polyacrylonitrile and Mesopha Pitch”, Journal of Advanced Materials, Volume 31, Number 1, January 1999, pages 36 – 41.
[8] Reneker, D. H., and Chun, I., “Nanometre Diameter Fibres of Polymer, Produced by Electrospinning”, Nanotechnology, Volume 7, 1996, pages 216-233.
[9] Schaefer, J.W., and Olson, L.M., “Air Filtration Media for Transportation Applications”, Filtration & Separation, March 1998.
[10] Schaefer, J.W., McDonald, B., and Gogins, M., “Nanofibers in Aerosol Filtration”, Nanotechnology for the Soldier System Conference, sponsored by the U.S. Army Soldier Systems Command (SSCOM), Army Rearch Office (ARO), Army Rearch Laboratory (ARL), and the National Science Foundation (NSF),Cambridge, MA, July 1998.
[11] Garcia, J. J., Gresh, R. E., Gareis, M.B., and Haney, R. A., “Effectiveness of Cabs for Dust and Silica Control on Mobile Mining Equipment”, Proceedings of the 8th US Mine Ventilation Symposium, University of Missouri at Rolla, June 1999.
[12] Prented by the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) at a training minar “One-Day Metal/Nonmetal Seminar” held March 21, 2000
请自便的英文in Dallas, Texas.
[13] Luzhansky, D.L. “Quality Control in Manufacturing of Electrospun Nanofiber Composites” prented at The Fiber Society Fall Technical Meeting, 2002
[14] Gogins, M. A. US Patent 5,203,201 “On-line Web Filtration Efficiency Test Method” assigned to Donaldson Company Inc.
[15] Grafe, T.H., Gogins, M., Barris, M.A., Schaefer, J., Canepa, R., “Nanofibers in Filtration Applications
in Transportation”; Filtration 2001 Conference Proceedings, 2001.
[16] Graham, K., Ouyang, M., Raether, T., Grafe, T. McDonald, B., Knauf, P. “Polymeric Nanofibers in Air Filtration Applications” Fifteenth Annual Technical Conference & Expo of the American Filtration & Separations Society, April 2002
