Chapter 2 Phonology
2.1 The phonic medium of language (语言的声音媒介).
Sounds which are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonic medium of language(语言的声音媒介).
跑步能瘦肚子吗2.2 Phonetics
2.2.1 What is phonetics?
股权激励方案与合伙人制度 Phonetics（语音学） is the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.
Types of phonetics：
Phonetics looks at speech sounds from 3 distinct but related points of view:
1) From the speaker’s point of view: how a speaker us his speech organs to articulate the sounds, which results in articulatory phonetics（发音语音学）.
2) From the hearer’s point of view：:
how the sounds are perceived by
the hearer, which results in auditory
phonetics（听觉语音学）.
3) From the way sounds travel: how sounds travel by looking at the sound saves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another, which results in acoustic phonetics（声学语音学）.
By studying sound waves with the help of spectrographs, acoustic phoneticians find that the same sounds we claim to have heard are in most cas only phonetically similar, but rarely phonetically identical.
2.2.2 Organs of speech（发声器官）
1.lips 依法治校手抄报
2.teeth
3.teeth ridge （齿龈） (alveolus)
4. Hard palate（硬腭）
5.soft palate (velum)（软腭）
6.uvula （小舌）
7.tip of tongue （舌尖）
8. Blade of tongue （舌面） 我是一个兵歌词
9. Back of tongue （舌后）
10.vocal cords （声带）
11.pharyngeal cavity （咽腔）
12. Nasal cavity （鼻腔）
贝鲁特屠杀
1)The pharyngeal cavity（咽腔）:
Vibration（颤动） of the vocal cords（声带） results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing（浊化）, which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English.
When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration, the sounds produced in such a condition are voiceless（清音）.
2) The oral cavity(口腔)
The greatest source of modification of the air stream is found in the oral cavity.
The speech organs located in this cavity are the tongue, the uvula, the soft palate (the velum), the hard palate, the teeth ridge (the alveolus), the teeth and the lips.
Of all the above, the tongue is the most flexible, and is responsible for more varieties of articulation than any other
3) The nasal cavity（鼻腔）
The nasal cavity is connected with the oral cavity.
The soft part of the roof of the mouth, the velum, can be drawn back to clo the passage so that all air exiting from the lungs can only go through the mouth. The sounds produced in this condition are not nasalized.
If the passage is left open to allow air to exit through the no, the sounds produced are nasalized sounds.
2.2.3 orthographic reprentation of speech sounds-broad transcription and narrow transcription (宽式标音和严式标音)
A standardized and internationally accepted phonetic
transcription is the International Phonetic Alphabet
（IPA）（国际音标）.
The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter
lected from major European language to reprent 幼儿园感恩词
梦见自己拿刀砍人one speech sound.
However, there are some speech sounds which differ in some detailed aspects. Phoneticians need another t of symbols to distinguish the detailed differences.
For example:
[l] in feel and leaf
[p] in peace and speed
Thus the IPA provides its urs with another t of symbols called diacritics(变音符).
The diacritics are added to the letter-symbols to bring out the finer distinctions.
For example:
[l] in leaf is a clear [l]
[l] in feel is a dark [l]
[l] in health is a dental [l]
Broad transcription ---- ud in dictionary and textbook for general purpo, without diacritics, e.g. clear [ l ], [ pit ]
Narrow transcription ---- ud by phonetician for careful study, with diacritics, e.g. dark [ l ], aspirated [ p ]
Diacritics does not make a difference between words in English.
E.g. / sph it/ and /spit/ .
But the substitution of /p/ for /t/ does make a difference of word in English.
e.g. /pip/ and /tip/
2.2.4 Classification of English speech sounds （英语语音的分类）
The speech sounds in the English language can be divided into vowels and consonants.
The basic difference between a vowel and a consonant is that(元音与辅音的根本区别在于) :
In the pronunciation of a vowel the air that comes from the lungs meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the no, or the mouth,
While in the pronunciation of a consonant it is obstructed in one way or another.生命的底色
2.2.4.1Classification of English consonants
English consonants can be classified either in terms of manner of articulation（发音方式） or in terms of place of articulation（发音位置）：
