Running head: A META-ANALYSIS OF PLOC
环孢素胶囊A Meta-Analysis of Perceived Locus of Causality in Exerci,
Sport, and Physical Education Contexts
Nikos L. D. Chatzisarantis,
University of Exeter
Martin S. Hagger
University of Esx
Stuart J. H. Biddle
Loughborough University
Brett Smith
University of Exeter
产品工程师
&
John C. K. Wang
Nanyang Technical University
Journal of Sport and Exerci Psychology, 25, 284-306 Correspondence:
民魂Nikos L.D. Chatzisarantis
School of Sport and Health Sciences团干部
University of Exeter
水中瑜伽St. Luke’s Campus, Exeter
EX1 2LU
United Kingdom
email: N.Chatzisarantis@exeter.ac.uk
Abstract
The prent article conducts a meta-analytic review of the rearch adopting the perceived locus of causality in the contexts of sport, exerci, and physical education. A literature arch of published articles identified three main rearch foci: (a) the development of instruments that asss perceived locus of causality; (b) the examination of the construct validity of perceived locus of causality by investigating the relevance of the lf-determination continuum as well as by using antecedents (e.g., perceived competence) and outcomes (e.g., intentions); and (c) to integrate Nicholls’ (1985) concepts of task and ego orientation with perceived locus of causality. A meta-analysis using 21 published articles supported the existence of a lf-determination continuum from external regulation to introjection and identification. In addition, path analysis of corrected effect sizes supported the mediating effects of perceived locus of causality on the relationship between perceived competence and intentions. Results are discusd with reference to the assumptions of lf-determination theory, Vallerand’s (1997) hierarchical model of intrinsic extrinsic motivation and of theories of behavioral intentions.
Keywords: Self-determination theory, perceived competence, behavioral intentions
Introduction
无人生还2012Understanding adherence to health-related behaviors is an important avenue for scientific inquiry. Knowledge of the fundamental process and mechanisms of human behavior can inform practice about how to promote human motivation. Deci and Ryan's (1985) lf-determination theory has become increasingly popular in studies of human motivation (Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 1999a).
The Self-Determination Theory Approach to Human Behavior
漫步雨中Self-determination theory postulates that intentional human behavior can be described, in a parsimonious way, through two process of intrinsic motivation and internalization. Intrinsic motivation refers to: "the doing of an activity for its inherent satisfactions rather than for some parable conquences" (Ryan & Deci, 2000, p. 56). Cognitive evaluation theory is a sub-theory of lf-determination theory that attempts to understand factors that facilitate and undermine intrinsic motivation. It has been postulated that intrinsic motivation is engendered when people are in conditions that support three innate psychological needs for lf-determination, competence, and relatedness (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Self-determination refers to the need for experiencing onelf as initiator and regulator of one's actions Competence refers to the need for producing behavioral outcomes and to understand production of the behavioral outcomes. Relatedness refers to the need for experiencing satisfactory relationships with others and with the social order in general (Deci
& Ryan, 1990).
In a meta-analysis of experimental studies dealing with intrinsic motivation, Deci et al. (1999 a) established a relationship between experimental conditions influencing psychological needs and intrinsic motivation. In the experiments that they meta-analyzed, intrinsic motivation was assd after exposing individuals to conditions that either frustrated or satisfied psychological needs. The psychological need for lf-determination was manipulated through exposing individuals to conditions of either choice or no choice. In
addition, the need for competence was manipulated by administering positive or negative feedback. Following exposure to such conditions, participants’ levels of intrinsic motivation were assd in two ways. First, the engagement in a target task during a period in which individuals are given the opportunity to engage in alternative interesting tasks (free choice period) was ud to reprent a behavioral indicator of intrinsic motivation. Second, a lf-report measure of interest derived from the task chon during the free choice period was ud as a more covert measure of intrinsic motivation. Deci et al. (1999 a) reported that conditions frustrating psychological needs undermined lf-report interest and overt involvement with the target task when compared to conditions that facilitated satisfaction of such needs. In addition, there is evidence to suggest that intrinsically motiva
ted behaviors are intentional. Chaiken (1980) showed that people are more likely to express intentions to arch information about a topic when the topic is personally interesting than when it is not (Chatzisarantis, Hagger, Biddle, & Karageorghis, 2002).
Although the concept of intrinsic motivation has attracted a great deal of scientific interest and debate (e Einberg, Pierce, & Cameron, 2000), behavioral regulation through intrinsic motivation is not the only type of social behavior that individuals can engage in. For this reason, Deci and Ryan (1985) propod an organismic integration theory, which is a cond sub-theory of lf-determination theory, to explain the process of internalization. Internalization describes the process through which individuals take in a value or regulation and progressively transform it so that the regulation emanates from their own n of lf. A model describing internalization and human motivation from an organismic integration theory perspective is prented in Figure 1a. On the left hand-side of the model is amotivation, referring to a person’s lack of intentionality and n of personal causation. Perceived incompetence and beliefs that behavior cannot reliably lead to desired outcomes can precipitate amotivation. To the right of amotivation on the lf-determination theory continuum, there are four different forms of extrinsic motivation: external regulation,
introjection, identification, and integration. Each of the forms of regulation reflects the achievement
of outcomes that are parate from the behavior, which is why they do not reprent intrinsic motivation. Even so, they do reflect different degrees of internalization.
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冰雪皇后加盟费Inrt Figure 1 about here
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Internalization is initialized by significant others to whom individuals feel attached or related (Ryan & Deci, 2000). The externally prompted behaviors are reprented by external regulation. Introjection lies next to external regulation and it refers to a behavior that is performed for avoiding a pressuring emotion of guilt or shame. External regulation and introjection describe less internalized and more controlling forms of behavior becau they refer to behaviors that are performed under some form of internal (i.e., introjection) or external pressure (i.e., external regulation). A less controlling and more autonomous form of behavior is described by identification, which refers to a behavior that is performed becau the individual values it. During identification, individuals accept and endor the value of behavior as a reason for action, thus, identified behavior reflects higher degrees of internalization. The most autonomous and least controlling form of behavior is integrated
regulation, which refers to identifications that are brought into congruence with other behaviors and roles that are enacted in life. This definition of integrated regulation presuppos that identification is a less autonomous form of behavioral regulation than integration becau regulation through identification may conflict with pre-existing values and behaviors. In an experimental study, Deci, Eghari, Patrick and Leone (1994) established a relationship between experimental conditions influencing psychological needs and internalization of an initially boring activity. In this experiment, provision of a rationale, acknowledgement of tension and pressure associated with involvement in a boring activity,
provision of choice and utilization of non-pressuring language (e.g., u of may or could and not of should or must) were all found to facilitate internalization.
Ryan and Connell (1989) developed an instrument, in an educational context, termed the Perceived Locus of Causality scale (PLOC). The PLOC measures external regulation, introjection, identification, and intrinsic motivation. The dimensions of PLOC scale were also found to conform to a simplex-ordered structure. A simplex-ordered structure is evident when correlations between adjacent types of behavior (e.g., external regulation and introjection) are higher than correlations between dimensions that lie further apart (e.g., external regulation and identification). Further, simple
x-ordered correlation matrices indicate the prence of a continuum, which Deci and Ryan (1990) describe as a developmental continuum of lf-determination. However, Ryan and Deci (2000) also suggest that support of a continuum does not preclude the possibility for individuals to internalize a new behavior at any point along this continuum depending on prior experience and current situational factors.
Applications of Self-Determination Theory in Sport, Exerci and Physical Education The concept of PLOC provides a very comprehensive view of human motivation. As Ryan and Deci (2000) put it: “even a brief reflection suggests that motivation is hardly a unitary phenomenon” (p. 54), yet many theories of intentional behavior still define and operationali motivation as a unitary phenomenon (Bagozzi & Kimmel, 1995). In sport, exerci, and physical education contexts, rearch has dealt with the development and examination of construct validity of instruments measuring intrinsic motivation and internalization. There are also a number of studies examining relationships between measures of PLOC and Nicholls (1984) achievement goals theory (Biddle, Soos, & Chatzisarantis, 1999; Goudas, Biddle, & Fox, 1994; Ntoumanis 2001 b; Wang, Chatzisarantis, Spray & Biddle, 2002).
