知法守法Annex B. Glossary of Terms
This Glossary is bad on the glossaries published in the IPCC Third Asssment Report (IPCC, 2001a,b,c); however, additional work has been undertaken on consistency and refinement of some of the terms. The terms that are independent entries in this glossary are highlighted in italics.
Acclimatization
The physiological adaptation to climatic variations. Activities Implemented Jointly (AIJ)
The pilot pha for Joint Implementation, as defined in Article 4.2(a) of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, that allows for project activity among developed countries (and their companies) and between developed and developing countries (and their companies). AIJ is intended to allow Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change to gain experience in jointly implemented project activities. There is no crediting for AIJ activity during the pilot pha. A decision remains to be taken on the future of AIJ projects and how they may relate to the Kyoto Mechanisms. As a simple form of tradable permits, AIJ and other market-bad schemes reprent im
portant potential mechanisms for stimulating additional resource flows for the global environmental good. See also Clean Development Mechanism and emissions trading. Adaptability
See Adaptive capacity.
Adaptation
Adjustment in natural or human systems to a new or changing environment. Adaptation to climate change refers to adjustment in natural or human systems in respon to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities. Various types of adaptation can be distinguished, including anticipatory and reactive adaptation, private and public adaptation, and autonomous and planned adaptation.
四级分数线Adaptation asssment
The practice of identifying options to adapt to climate change and evaluating them in terms of criteria such as availability, benefits, costs, effectiveness, efficiency, and feasibility. Adaptation benefits
The avoided damage costs or the accrued benefits following the adoption and implementation of adaptation measures. Adaptation costs
Costs of planning, preparing for, facilitating, and implementing adaptation measures, including transition costs.Adaptive capacity正科级干部
The ability of a system to adjust to climate change (including climate variability and extremes) to moderate potential damages, to take advantage of opportunities, or to cope with the conquences. Additionality
Reduction in emissions by sources or enhancement of removals by sinks that is additional to any that would occur in the abnce of a Joint Implementation or a Clean Development Mechanism project activity as defined in the Kyoto Protocol Articles on Joint Implementation and the Clean Development Mechanism. This definition may be further broadened to include financial, investment, and technology additionality. Under “financial additionality,” the project activity funding shall be additional to existing Global Environmental Facility, other financial commitments of Parties included in Annex I, Official Development Assistance, and other systems of cooperation. Under “investment additionality,” the value of the Emissions Reduction Unit/Certified Emission Reduction Unit shall significantly improve the financial and/or commercial viability of the project activity. Under “technology additionality,” the technology ud for the project activity shall be the best available for the circumstances of the host Party. Adjustment time
See Lifetime; e also Respon time.
Aerosols
A collection of airborne solid or liquid particles, with a typical size between 0.01 and 10 mm that reside in the atmosphere for at least veral hours. Aerosols may be of either natural or anthropogenic origin. Aerosols may influence climate in two ways: directly through scattering and absorbing radiation, and indirectly through acting as condensation nuclei for cloud formation or modifying the optical properties and lifetime of clouds. See indirect aerosol effect.学艺术的好处
Afforestation
Planting of new forests on lands that historically have not contained forests. For a discussion of the term forest and related terms such as afforestation, reforestation, and deforestation, e the IPCC Special Report on Land U, Land-U Change, and Forestry (IPCC, 2000b).
Aggregate impacts
Total impacts summed up across ctors and/or regions. The aggregation of impacts requires knowledge of (or assumptions about) the relative importance of impacts in different ctors and regio
ns. Measures of aggregate impacts include, for example, the total number of people affected, change in net primary productivity, number of systems undergoing change, or total economic costs. Albedo
The fraction of solar radiation reflected by a surface or object, often expresd as a percentage. Snow covered surfaces have
a high albedo; the albedo of soils ranges from high to low; vegetation covered surfaces and oceans have a low albedo. The Earth’s albedo varies mainly through varying cloudiness, snow, ice, leaf area, and land cover changes.
Algal blooms
A reproductive explosion of algae in a lake, river, or ocean. Alpine
如何运球The biogeographic zone made up of slopes above timberline and characterized by the prence of rotte-forming herbaceous plants and low shrubby slow-growing woody plants.
Alternative development paths
Refer to a variety of possible scenarios for societal values and consumption and production patterns in all countries, including, but not limited to, a continuation of today’s trends. In this report, the paths do not include additional climate initiatives which means that no scenarios are included that explicitly assume implementation of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change or the emission targets of the Kyoto Protocol,but do include assumptions about other policies that influence greenhou gas emissions indirectly.
Alternative energy
Energy derived from non-fossil-fuel sources.
Ancillary benefits
The ancillary, or side effects, of policies aimed exclusively at climate change mitigation. Such policies have an impact not only on greenhou gas emissions, but also on resource u efficiency, like reduction in emissions of local and regional air pollutants associated with fossil-fuel u, and on issues such as transportation, agriculture, land-u practices, employment, and fuel curity. Sometimes the benefits are referred to as “ancillary impacts” to reflect that in some cas the benefits may be negative. From the perspective of policies directed at abating local air pollution, gre
enhou gas mitigation may also be considered an ancillary benefit, but the relationships are not considered in this asssment. Annex I countries/Parties
Group of countries included in Annex I (as amended in 1998) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, including all the developed countries in the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, and economies in transition. By default, the other countries are referred to as non-Annex I countries. Under Articles 4.2(a) and 4.2(b) of the Convention, Annex I countries commit themlves specifically to the aim of returning individually or jointly to their 1990 levels of greenhou gas emissions by the year 2000. See also Annex II, Annex B, and non-Annex B countries.Annex II countries
Group of countries included in Annex II to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, including all developed countries in the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development. Under Article 4.2(g) of the Convention, the countries are expected to provide financial resources to assist developing countries to comply with their obligations, such as preparing national reports. Annex II countries are also expected to promote the transfer of environmentally sound technologies to developing countries. See also Annex I, Annex B, non-Annex I, and non-Annex B countries/Parties.
Annex B countries/Parties
Group of countries included in Annex B in the Kyoto Protocol that have agreed to a target for their greenhou gas emissions, including all the Annex I countries (as amended in 1998) but Turkey and Belarus. See also Annex II, non-Annex I, and non-Annex B countries/Parties.
Anthropogenic
Resulting from or produced by human beings. Anthropogenic emissions
Emissions of greenhou gas, greenhou gas precursors, and aerosols associated with human activities. The include burning of fossil fuels for energy, deforestation, and land-u changes that result in net increa in emissions. Aquaculture
Breeding and rearing fish, shellfish, etc., or growing plants for food in special ponds.
Aquifer
A stratum of permeable rock that bears water. An unconfined aquifer is recharged directly by local rainfall, rivers, and lakes, and the rate of recharge will be influenced by the permeability of the overlyi
ng rocks and soils. A confined aquifer is characterized by an overlying bed that is impermeable and the local rainfall does not influence the aquifer.
Arid regions
Ecosystems with less than 250 mm precipitation per year. Assigned amounts (AAs)
Under the Kyoto Protocol, the total amount of greenhou gas emissions that each Annex B country has agreed that its emissions will not exceed in the first commitment period (2008 to 2012) is the assigned amount. This is calculated by multiplying the country’s total greenhou gas emissions in 1990 by five (for the 5-year commitment period) and then by the percentage it agreed to as listed in Annex B of the Kyoto Protocol (e.g., 92% for the European Union, 93% for the USA).
Assigned amount unit (AAU)
Equal to 1 tonne (metric ton) of CO
2
景点分享-equivalent emissions calculated using the Global Warming Potential.
Atmosphere
The gaous envelop surrounding the Earth. The dry atmosphere consists almost entirely of nitrogen (78.1% volume mixing ratio) and oxygen (20.9% volume mixing ratio), together with a number of trace gas, such as argon (0.93% volume mixing ratio), helium, and radiatively active greenhou gas such as carbon dioxide (0.035% volume mixing ratio) and ozone. In addition, the atmosphere contains water vapor, who amount is highly variable but typically 1% volume mixing ratio. The atmosphere also contains clouds and aerosols.
Attribution
See detection and attribution.
Banking
According to the Kyoto Protocol [Article 3(13)], Parties included in Annex I to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change may save excess emissions allowances or credits from the first commitment period for u in subquent commitment periods (post-2012). Barrier
A barrier is any obstacle to reaching a potential that can be overcome by a policy, program, or measure.
Baline
The baline (or reference) is any datum against which change is measured. It might be a “current baline,” in which ca it reprents obrvable, prent-day conditions. It might also be a “future baline,” which is a projected future t of conditions excluding the driving factor of interest. Alternative interpretations of the reference conditions can give ri to multiple balines.
Basin
The drainage area of a stream, river, or lake.
Biodiversity
The numbers and relative abundances of different genes (genetic diversity), species, and ecosystems (communities) in a particular area.
Biofuel
A fuel produced from dry organic matter or combustible oils produced by plants. Examples of biofuel include alcohol (from fermented sugar), black liquor from the paper manufacturing process, wood, and soybean oil.
Biomass
The total mass of living organisms in a given area or volume; recently dead plant material is often included as dead biomass.Biome
A grouping of similar plant and animal communities into broad landscape units that occur under similar environmental conditions.
Biosphere (terrestrial and marine)
The part of the Earth system comprising all ecosystems and living organisms in the atmosphere, on land (terrestrial biosphere), or in the oceans (marine biosphere), including derived dead organic matter such as litter, soil organic matter, and oceanic detritus.
Biota
All living organisms of an area; the flora and fauna considered as a unit.
Black carbon
Operationally defined species bad on measurement of light absorption and chemical reactivity and/or thermal stability; consists of soot, charcoal, and/or possible light-absorbing refractory organic matter (Charlson and Heintzenberg, 1995). Bog
A poorly drained area rich in accumulated plant material, frequently surrounding a body of open water and having a characteristic flora (such as dges, heaths, and sphagnum). Boreal forest
Forests of pine, spruce, fir, and larch stretching from the east coast of Canada westward to Alaska and continuing from Siberia westward across the entire extent of Russia to the European Plain.
Bottom-up models
A modeling approach that includes technological and engineering details in the analysis. See also top-down models. Burden
The total mass of a gaous substance of concern in the atmosphere.
Capacity building
In the context of climate change, capacity building is a process of developing the technical skills and institutional capability in developing countries and economies in transition to enable them to participate in all aspects of adaptation to, mitigation of, and rearch on climate change, and the implementation of the Kyoto Mechanisms, etc.
Carbonaceous aerosol
Aerosol consisting predominantly of organic substances and various forms of black carbon (Charlson and Heintzenberg, 1995).
Carbon cycle
The term ud to describe the flow of carbon (in various forms such as as carbon dioxide) through the atmosphere, ocean, terrestrial biosphere, and lithosphere.
Carbon dioxide (CO
2
)
A naturally occurring gas, and also a by-product of burning fossil fuels and biomass, as well as land-u changes and other industrial process. It is the principal anthropogenic greenhou gas that affects the Earth’s radiative balance. It is the reference gas against which other greenhou gas are measured and therefore has a Global Warming Potential of 1.
Carbon dioxide (CO
2
) fertilization
The enhancement of the growth of plants as a result of incread atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration. Depending on their mechanism of photosynthesis, certain types of plants are more nsitive to changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration.
In particular, plants that produce a three-carbon compound (C
3
) during photosynthesis—including most trees and agricultural crops such as rice, wheat, soybeans, potatoes, and vegetables—generally show a larger respon than plants that produce a
four-carbon compound (C
4
) during photosynthesis—mainly of tropical origin, including grass and the agriculturally important crops maize, sugar cane, millet, and sorghum. Carbon leakage
See leakage.
Carbon taxes
See emissions tax.
Catchment
An area that collects and drains rainwater.
Certified Emission Reduction (CER) Unit
Equal to 1 tonne (metric ton) of CO
2
-equivalent emissions reduced or questered through a Clean Development Mechanism project, calculated using Global Warming Potentials. See also Emissions Reduction Unit. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Greenhou gas covered under the 1987 Montreal Protocol and ud for refrigeration, air conditioning, packaging, insulation, solvents, or aerosol propellants. Since they are not destroyed in the lower atmosphere, CFCs drift into the upper atmosphere where, given suitable conditions, they break down ozone. The gas are being replaced by other compounds, including hydrochlorofluorocarbons and hydrofluorocarbons, which are greenhou gas covered under the Kyoto Protocol.
Cholera
An intestinal infection that results in frequent watery stools, cramping abdominal pain, and eventual collap from dehydration.Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
Defined in Article 12 of the Kyoto Protocol, the Clean Development Mechanism is intended to meet two objectives: (1) to assist Parties not included in Annex I in achieving sustainable development and in contributing to the ultimate objective of the convention; and (2) to assist Parties included in Annex I in achieving compliance with their quantified emission limitation and reduction commitments. Certified Emission Reduction Units from Clean Development Mechanism projects undertaken in non-Annex I countries that limit or reduce greenhou gas emissions, when certified by operational entities designated by Conference of the Parties/ Meeting of the Parties, can be accrued to the investor (government or industry) from Parties in Annex B. A share of the proceeds from the certified project activities is ud to cover administrative expens as well as to assist developing country Parties that are particularly vulnerable to the adver effects of climate change to meet the costs of adaptation. Climate
Climate in a narrow n is usually defined as the “average weather” or more rigorously as the statistical description in terms of the mean and variability of relevant quantities over a period of time ranging from months to thousands or millions of years. The classical period is 30 years, as defined by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). The relevant quantities are most often surface variables such as temperature, precipitation, and wind. Climate in a wider n is the state, including a statistical description, of the climate system. Climate change
Climate change refers to a statistically significant variation in either the mean state of the climate or in its variability, persisting for an extended period (typically decades or longer). Climate change may be due to natural internal process or external forcings, or to persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land u. Note that the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), in its Article 1, defines “climate change”as: “a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability obrved over comparable time periods.” The UNFCCC thus makes a distinction between “climate change”attributable to human activities altering the atmospheric composition, and “climate variability” attributable to natural caus. See also climate variability.
Climate feedback
An interaction mechanism between process in the climate system is called a climate feedback, when the result of an initial process triggers changes in a cond process that in turn influences the initial one. A positive feedback intensifies the original process, and a negative feedback reduces it.
Climate model (hierarchy)
A numerical reprentation of the climate system bad on the physical, chemical, and biological properties of its components, their interactions and feedback process, and accounting for all or some of its known properties. The climate system can be reprented by models of varying complexity—that is, for any one component or combination of components a “hierarchy”of models can be identified, differing in such aspects as the number of spatial dimensions, the extent to which physical, chemical or biological process are explicitly reprented, or the level at which empirical parametrizations are involved. Coupled atmosphere/ocean/a-ice general circulation models (AOGCMs) provide a comprehensive reprentation of the climate system. There is an evolution towards more complex models with active chemistry and biology. Climate models are applied, as a rearch tool, to study and simulate the climate, but also for operational purpos, including monthly, asonal, and interannual climate predictions.
恩施市属于哪个市Climate prediction
A climate prediction or climate forecast is the result of an attempt to produce a most likely description or estimate of the actual evolution of the climate in the future (e.g., at asonal, interannual, or long-term time-scales). See also climate projection and climate (change) scenario.
Climate projection
A projection of the respon of the climate system to emission or concentration scenarios of greenhou gas and aerosols, or radiative forcing scenarios, often bad upon simulations by climate models. Climate projections are distinguished from climate predictions in order to emphasize that climate projections depend upon the emission/concentration/radiative forcing scenario ud, which are bad on assumptions, concerning, for example, future socio-economic and technological developments that may or may not be realized, and are therefore subject to substantial uncertainty. Climate scenario
A plausible and often simplified reprentation of the future climate, bad on an internally consistent t of climatological relationships, that has been constructed for explicit u in investigating the potential conquences of anthropogenic climate change, often rving as input to impact models. Climate projections often rve as the raw material for constructing climate scenarios, but climate scenarios usually require additional information such as about the obrved current climate. A “climate change scenario” is the difference between a climate scenario and the current climate. Climate nsitivity
In IPCC asssments, “equilibrium climate nsitivity” refers to the equilibrium change in global mean surface temperature following a doubling of the atmospheric (equivalent) CO
2 concentration. More generally, equilibrium climate nsitivity refers to the equilibrium change in surface air temperature following a unit change in radiative forcing (°C/Wm-2). In practice, the evaluation of the equilibrium climate nsitivity requires very long simulations with coupled general circulation models. The “effective climate nsitivity” is a related measure that circumvents this requirement. It is evaluated from model output for evolving non-equilibrium conditions. It is a measure of the strengths of the feedbacks at a particular time and may vary with forcing history and climate state. See climate model. Climate system
The climate system is the highly complex system consisting of five major components: the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the cryosphere, the land surface and the biosphere, and the interactions between them. The climate system evolves in time under the influence of its own internal dynamics and becau of external forcings such as volcanic eruptions, solar variations, and human-induced forcings such as the changing composition of the atmosphere and land-u change.
Climate variability
Climate variability refers to variations in the mean state and other statistics (such as standard deviations, the occurrence of extremes, etc.) of the climate on all temporal and spatial scales beyond that of individual weather events. Variability may be due to natural internal process within the climate system (internal variability), or to variations in natural or anthropogenic external forcing (external variability). See also climate change. CO
2
-equivalent
See equivalent CO
2
.
CO
2
fertilization
See carbon dioxide (CO
2
) fertilization.
Co-benefits
The benefits of policies that are implemented for various reasons at the same time—including climate change mitigation—acknowledging that most policies designed to address greenhou gas mitigation also have other, often at least equally important, rationales (e.g., related to objectives of development, sustainability, and equity). The term co-impact is also ud in a more generic n to cover both the positive and negative sides of the benefits.See also ancillary benefits. Co-generation
The u of waste heat from electric generation, such as exhaust from gas turbines, for either industrial purpos or district heating. Compliance
See implementation.
Conference of the Parties (COP)
The supreme body of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), comprising countries that have ratified or acceded to the UNFCCC. The first ssion of the
Conference of the Parties (COP-1) was held in Berlin in 1995, followed by COP-2 in Geneva 1996, COP-3 in Kyoto 1997, COP-4 in Buenos Aires 1998, COP-5 in Bonn 1999, COP-6 Part 1 in The Hague 2000, and COP-6 Part 2 in Bonn 2001. COP-7 is scheduled for November 2001 in Marrakech. See also Meeting of the Parties (MOP).
Cooling degree days
The integral over a day of the temperature above 18°C (e.g., a day with an average temperature of 20°C counts as 2 cooling degree days). See also heating degree days.
Coping range
The variation in climatic stimuli that a system can absorb without producing significant impacts.
Coral bleaching
The paling in color of corals resulting from a loss of symbiotic algae. Bleaching occurs in respon to physiological shock in respon to abrupt changes in temperature, salinity, and turbidity. Cost-effective
A criterion that specifies that a technology or measure delivers a good or rvice at equal or lower cost than current practice, or the least-cost alternative for the achievement of a given target. Cryosphere
The component of the climate system consisting of all snow, ice, and permafrost on and beneath the surface of the earth and ocean. See also glacier and ice sheet.
Deepwater formation
Occurs when awater freezes to form a ice. The local relea of salt and conquent increa in water density leads to the formation of saline coldwater that sinks to the ocean floor. Deforestation
Conversion of forest to non-forest. For a discussion of the term forest and related terms such as afforestation, reforestation, and deforestation, e the IPCC Special Report on Land U, Land-U Change, and Forestry (IPCC, 2000b). Demand-side management
Policies and programs designed for a specific purpo to influence consumer demand for goods and/or rvices. In the energy ctor, for instance, it refers to policies and programs designed to reduce consumer demand for electricity and other energy sources. It helps to reduce greenhou gas emissions. Dengue Fever
An infectious viral dia spread by mosquitoes often called breakbone fever becau it is characterized by vere pain in joints and back. Subquent infections of the virus may lead to dengue haemorrhagic fever (DHF) and dengue shock syndrome (DSS), which may be fatal.Deposit–refund system
Combines a deposit or fee (tax) on a commodity with a refund or rebate (subsidy) for implementation of a specified action. Se also emissions tax.
Dert
An ecosystem with less than 100 mm precipitation per year. Dertification
地藏节
Land degradation in arid, mi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities. Further, the United Nations Convention to Combat
Dertification defines land degradation as a reduction or loss in arid, mi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas of the biological or economic productivity and complexity of rain-fed cropland, irrigated cropland, or range, pasture, forest, and woodlands resulting from land us or from a process or combination of process, including process arising from human activities and habitation patterns, such as: (i) soil erosion caud by wind and/or water; (ii) deterioration of the physical, chemical, and biological or economic properties of soil; and (iii) long-term loss of natural vegetation. Detection and attribution
Climate varies continually on all time scales. Detection of climate change is the process of demonstrating that climate has changed in some defined statistical n, without providing a reason for that change. Attribution of caus of climate change is the process of establishing the most likely caus for the detected change with some defined level of confidence. Disturbance regime
Frequency, intensity, and types of disturbances, such as fires, inspect or pest outbreaks, floods, and droughts.
Diurnal temperature range
The difference between the maximum and minimum temperature during a day.
Double dividend
The effect that revenue-generating instruments, such as carbon taxes or auctioned (tradable) carbon emission permits, can (i) limit or reduce greenhou gas emissions and (ii) offt at least part of the potential welfare loss of climate policies through recycling the revenue in the economy to reduce other taxes likely to be distortionary. In a world with involuntary unemployment, the climate change policy adopted may have an effect (a positive or negative “third dividend”) on employment. Weak double dividend occurs as long as there is a revenue recycling effect—that is, as long as revenues are recycled through reductions in the marginal rates of distortionary taxes. Strong double dividend requires that the (beneficial) revenue recycling effect more than offt the combination of the primary cost and, in this ca, the net cost of abatement is negative.
