个体差异对二语习得的影响
郑建军
（广州大学华软软件学院外语系510990）
The Impact of Individual Differences on Second Language Acquisition
冷漠[Abstract]The article first briefs the three individual differences,namely language aptitude,personality,and learning style, which have great impact on Second Language Acquisition(SLA).Then four factors in language aptitude caud individual differences in SLA are listed,and it puts forward SLA can also be influenced by individual personality which varies from person to person.Last,learning style play an important role in SLA,and to some extent determines the effectiveness of SLA. [Keyword s]Language aptitude,Personality,Learning style,SLA银杏树的特点
中图分类号：G642文献标识码：A文章编号：1004-6127（2007）22-0007-04
A plethora of individual variables have been identified as having a bearing on cond language acquisition and they have been put into different groups due to various ways rearchers classify them.However,this paper is mainly concerned with the following three prototypical individual difference
大度16开s cloly pertinent to the success of SLA,namely,language aptitude, personality and learning style.
1I ndi vi dual l anguage apt i t ude i n SL A
First of all,the relationship between language aptitude and SLA will be discusd.Carroll defines aptitude as one’s capability of learning a task in combination with enduring characteristics of the learner and language aptitude as one’s special propensity for learning a cond language.Carroll identifies four factors in language aptitude and they can be measured by Modern Language Aptitude Test(MLAT)which was initially developed as a means of screening candidates for foreign language instruction at the Foreign Service Institute in the United States.The first,phonemic coding ability,is the ability to code foreign sounds in such a way that they can be recalled later.In other words,this ability handles sound-symbol relationships.The cond,grammatical nsitivity,is the ability to demonstrate one’s awareness of the syntactical patterning of ntences in a language according to Carroll,who makes it clear that it involves a conscious meta-awareness of grammar without equipping onelf with grammatical terminologies.And this process can be better understood by the comparison made by Carroll between this knowledge of a language and the subconscious knowledge in Chomsky’s competence.
Although it is often said that linguistic"competence"in the n defined by Chomsky(1965)involves some kind of "knowledge"of the grammatical rules of a language,this "knowledge"is ordinarily out of nevertheless,some adolescents and adults(and even some children)can be made to demonstrate an awareness of the syntactical structure of the ntences ven among adults there are large individual differences in this ability,and the individual differences are related to success in learning foreign languages,apparently becau this ability is called upon when the student tries to learn grammatical rules and apply them in constructing and comprehending new ntences in that language(Carroll).
The third,inductive ability,is the ability to identify patterns of correspondences and relationships involving form and meaning and it can be measured by prenting language materials in an artificial way that subjects can induce the grammatical and mantic rules governing the language.The fourth,rote learning ability,is the ability to memorize anything in language studies ranging from words to grammatical rules.With regard to the relationship between language aptitude and learning,a strong correlation has been consistently reported.
Carr oll’s studies using MLAT produced correlations between.40and.60with various criteria,including final cour grades,objective foreign language tests and instructors’estimates of learners’language a
bility.Gardner found a median correlation for aptitude of.41following his review of veral studies of the effects of aptitude on the learning of French in schools throughout Canada.Further progress has been made in this area since Horwitz found that language aptitude is related to both linguistic and communicative competence bad on his studies on61female high school students of French in the United States.
2The i m pact of per sonal i t y on SLA
At the same time,personality also plays a crucial role in
SLA and its major dimensions will be discusd here. Eynck(1972)obrved that Extroversion/introversion reprents a continuum and that extraverts are sociable,like parties,have many friends,willing to talk to others,enjoy excitement and take chances,whereas introverts are quiet,like reading instead of meeting people,do not make friends easily and tend to make a plan carefully in advance.Actually,there are two major hypothes regarding the relationship between extroversion/introversion and cond language learning.The first is that extroverted learners will outperform in acquiring basic interpersonal communication skills(BICS)for which the theoretical ba is that sociability,an esntial feature of extroversion,will bring about more opportunities in practice a
nd more cond language input.In his review of12 extroversion-related studies,Strong showed that8of them, who measure focud on natural communication language, supported that extroversion was a great advantage in BICS.The n after he carried out his own study of13Spanish-speaking kindergarten children in which various dimensions of personality were investigated,he concluded that better performance in speaking was attributable to the personality of extroversion. Brown held a similar view when he pointed out that it was conceivable that extroversion may be a factor in the speaking of a foreign language.The cond hypothesis is that introverted learners will outperform at developing cognitive academic language ability(CALP).And the rationale comes from studies showing that they spend much more time reading and writing and enjoy more academic success.(Griffiths,1991)Thus it is important to cater the needs of extroverted and introverted learners by taking corresponding approaches.For example, extroverts are better in acquiring BICS,and it is no good forcing them to do some reading or reciting.Since extroverts are active, teachers may not make all the students keep silent or simply under their control to listen to their one-man shows,rather they should make an active discussion,smooth free talk,exciting play show and so on.
Moreover,lf-confidence and lf-consciousness also draw a lot of attention.According to Dulay et al(1982：75), lf-confident persons are more successful language learners under the same conditi
ons for the fact that they have the advantage of not fearing rejection and are less likely to withdrawal even when they make mistakes.This remarkably enhances their rate of learning becau they ize all the opportunities to practice as much as possible.
In addition,whether one can achieve success in SLA also has much to do with the level of anxiety.In fact,a distinction can be made between trait anxiety,state anxiety and situational anxiety.According to Scovel(1998),trait anxiety lies in the heart of learner and is viewed as an aspect of personality.State anxiety aris in spontaneous respon to a definite situation at a particular time while the situational anxiety is aroud by a much more specific ca.As to the source of anxiety,Bailey found that competition made learners anxious for they fell behind others in language proficiency,noting that their anxiety would decrea as they became much more proficient.
Furthermore,other sources of anxiety have been identified. Communication apprehension,for instance,comes from one’s reluctance to take initiative in conversation with others and it more likely aris for tho who underestimate their language proficiency and thus the most common strategy they take in this situation is avoidance or withdrawal.Another source is test. Language learners actually take exams on a regular basis and test anxiety is lf-evident.Aida argued that failures in one’s past studies and exams were the cau of test anxiety and that the more one thinks about the
m,the more anxious one is going to be.It is extremely difficult for tho anxious about tests to concentrate on the class since they worry about their tests all the time and their concerns over diverted attention made the situation wor.Besides,fear of negative evaluation is one of the obstacles one has overcome in language learning.Basically it derived from worries about others’negative respon to one’s questions or demands,thus leading to the loss of courage and confidence in studies.
Therefore,in order to minimize the negative impact of others’evaluation on their initiative,tho nsitive to negative evaluation would rather keep silent or try to be a listener rather than a talkative member in the group.It is obvious that tho people are less likely to succeed in their spoken language due to their failure in initiating a dialogue or conversation.So the brief discussion above at least sheds some light on relationship between anxiety and SLA—anxiety negatively affects performance in SLA and more relaxed the learner is,the better language acquisition proceeds.Therefore,effective measures have to be taken to induce in learners a state of mental relaxation so as to maximize language learning.Suggestopedia,one of widely-recognized teaching methods developed by George Lozanov,is a typical example in reducing the negative influence of anxiety in the class,which in return incread students’receptivity to the new language material.Emp
athy,the ability to put onelf in anothe r's shoes,is also predicted to be relevant to acquisition in that the empathic person may be the one who is able to identify more easily with speakers of a target language
and thus accept their input as intake for language acquisition (lowered affective filter).According to Dulay et al.(1982：
76),learners with authoritarian dispositions do not em to learn
a cond language as effortlessly as empathetic personalities.It is esntial to listen to others and care more about ideas in communication than avoid speech errors in learning a cond language,which is a strong area for empathetic learners and a weak one for authoritarian learners.So empathy is indeed an important factor in successful language learning.
艾玛看
Then inhibition and language ego developed by Guiora will be examined in terms of its relationship with pronunciation in SLA.Guiora regards language ego as parallel to the Freudian construct,body ego.In the cour of general ego development, a child acquires body ego by which he becomes aware of the limits of his physical being and begins to distinguish himlf from his surroundings.At the same time,language boundaries also developed in the similar fashion.Schumann(1974)argued th
at language ego boundaries are permeable in the early stage and become fixed late and rigidity of ego boundaries and heightened levels of inhibition are interchangeable from Guiora’s point of view.An experiment,in which subjects were given varying amounts of alcohol to test their pronunciation,had shown that a direct relationship exists between inhibition and pronunciation in a cond language acquisition.
3Learni ng st yl e i n SL A
Learning style,the third component of prototypical individual differences,will be examined to find out relationship between various learning styles and achievement in SLA.Keefe defines learning style as“…the characteristic cognitive, affective and physiological behaviors that rve as relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive,interact with and respond to the learning environment…Learning style is a consistent way of functioning,that reflects underlying caus of behavior.”It was Witkin who made the distinction between field independence(FI)and field dependence(FD)concerning cognitive learning style.The term“field”refers to context or background.It has also been found that field-dependent learners tend to show a strong social orientation and are more empathetic and more perceptive of feelings of others,whereas field?independent learners tend to show an impersonal orientation,in other word,they confine themlves to their own inner world without too much concerns
教学over things around them. Basically there are three hypothes concerning relationship between FI/FD learners and achievement in SLA.The first one is that field-independent persons are good cond language learners due to their high nsitivity to subtle language changes and it was supported by Stern who held that optimal learners are tho who can approach the language from its context and draw a clear line among various speeches so as to have a deeper understanding on language itlf.The cond one is that field dependent persons are good cond language learners for two reasons.Firstly,the fact that the people are outgoing which makes it easier for them to involve in social intercour and the more they get into contact with others,the higher language proficiency they will develop.Moreover,some experts argue that language is part of culture and that learning a language is to have a better understanding on another culture.They could accept another culture faster without little psychological resistance,thus enhancing rate of learning with culture involved in language studies.Guiora pointed out that empathy plays a significant role in acculturation and is cloly-related to SLA. The third hypothesis is that both types can be good language learners and they have their respective advantages in different study environment,that is,field dependent learners had better learn the language in free and relaxed atmosphere while independent persons learn it in the class.So from their characteristics we can conclude that the latter have a great advantage over the former in resolving issues through such strategies as structure analysis,induction and deduction and the former can do a better job in personal communication.
Apart from Witkin’s distinction between FD and FI,Reid identified four widely-recognized perceptual modalities on the basis of learners’stated preferences in study techniques, namely,visual learning,auditory learning,kinesthetic learning involving physical respons and tactile learning.Following his investigation into preferred modalities of more than one thousand students of varying language background,Reid concluded that there is a general preference for kinesthetic and tactile learning styles and for individual as oppod to group learning and that language proficiency was not necessarily cloly related to the choice of learning style,but the longer one lived in the United States,the more and auditory style was preferred.Although there is not convincing evidence to support which modality works the best,it is feasible to say that learners flexible in learning strategies have more chances of success in SLA.
4Concl us i on
It is lf-evident from above discussion that whether one can outperform in some areas and fail to reach the same proficiency in others,to some degree,depends on one’s aptitude,personality and learning style.But efforts have to be made to make all learners have a good command of any cond language in all aspects of the language by taking different
approaches in teaching.On one hand,one’s potential capability in some aspects of the language has to be sharpened to its competitive edge and one’s poor ability should also be addresd meticulously on the other.
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舞蹈教学在大学非专业教育中存在的问题与对策
王薇
（河南省郑州航空工业管理学院450015）
[摘要]普通高校非专业舞蹈教学目前存在着各种问题，从教学目的的偏颇到教学方法的错位，导致高校非专业舞蹈教学实践无法适应学生对舞蹈学习的内在需求，制约了高校审美教育的发展，影响了素质教育在高校的开展。本文针对这些问题提出了应对措施和方法。
关键词：舞蹈教学非专业教育内容技巧
中图分类号：G642.421文献标识码：A文章编号：1004-6127（2007）22-0010-03
前言
高校的舞蹈教育，尤其是非专业的舞蹈教学，应当以培养学生对舞蹈的审美情感、审美意识以及文化内涵为目的，应当具有艺术学科的感性教育，也要具有人文学科的综合性教育，不仅仅要学生学会外部形体和舞蹈技巧的训练，同时也要对舞蹈的文化背景、人文精神以及民族文化的继承有所传授。
然而当前的舞蹈教学，却恰恰忽视了这样的初衷，过多的注重外在形式而忽视了内容的教学，致使学生对舞蹈的理解过于片面和肤浅，对传统的民族舞蹈一无所知，对舞蹈本身的人文意蕴缺乏认识。
本文的写作，即是针对这些问题进行分析，并提出一些措施和办法，以促进大学非专业舞蹈教育的健康发展，使其真正发挥作用，提高学生的综合素质。
1高校舞蹈教学过程中存在的问题
舞蹈教育对大学生提高自身美感、鉴赏美与创造美的能力方面，具有其他学科不可替代的作用。但是目前的高校舞蹈教学，存在着各种各样的问题，导致舞蹈教育难以发挥应有的作用。
1.1舞蹈教学的目的有所偏颇
舞蹈教学的目的是审美教育。从专业的角度来说，舞蹈作为一项空间与时间融合的艺术样式，通过人体动作这一表现形式，来实现美的显现、情节的描述、情感的宣泄。而不同层次的表达，都需要舞蹈者对各种动作的内涵有清醒的审美认识，对节奏、速度、韵律等内在联系有很好的协调。这些认识和技能的提高，首先就需要舞蹈者具有敏锐的审美感知、感受和表达能力。所以从专业角度，审美教育是舞蹈教学的主要内容，只有舞蹈者具有了对美的认知与表达，其舞蹈才具有美德内容与形式。
而作为非舞蹈专业的大学生，舞蹈教学的目的除了舞蹈动作的表现，更多的是通过舞蹈艺术自身的特
点。培养其审美情趣和健康人格，培养其对舞蹈艺术的认识、理解和鉴赏能力，使大学生在情感上获得审美体验，净化心灵，树立正确的审美观，在思想道德素质和文化素质上得到提高。
但是目前高校的非专业舞蹈教育，对舞蹈教学的目的依然不够明确，一方面是侧重于舞蹈动作的传授，过于追求基本功的练习，而忽略了对舞蹈鉴赏和审美能力的培养，一些教师用培养专业舞蹈演员的方法来对学生进行授课，与普及舞蹈、提高审美能力这样的目的相违背；另一方面，舞蹈教师对学生的身体有一定的限制条件，身材好、形象好的学生才具有学习舞蹈的机会，这就改变了高校舞蹈教学的根本性质，不符合舞蹈
