Teaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics.
Teaching difficulties: design features of language ; some important distinctions in linguistics Teaching procedures
1. language
1.1 Why study language?为什么学习语言
A tool for communication交流的工具
An integral part of our life and humanity 人类生活和人性中不可或缺的一部分.
If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our esntial humanity.如果不能完全理解语言的本质和结构，我们就会对人类的本质一无所知.
1.2 What is language?什么是语言
1.2.1 different ns of language 语言的不同意义
1. what a person says( concrete act of speech)
a person’s consistent way of speaking or writing
a particular level of speaking or colloquial language
an abstract system
2. A web ster’s New Dictionrary offers a frequently ud n of the word “language”:
a. human speech 人类的言语
b. the ability to communicate by this means 通过言语来交流的能力
c. a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning is attributed, ud for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings; 用来表达或交流思想和感觉的一套声音及这些声音互相结合的系统
d. the written reprentation of such a system 系统的文字表达
3. the barest of definition, language is a means of verbal communication.最简洁的定义：语言是言语
交流的一种方式.
Language is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purpoful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social miostic and communication can only take place effectively if all the urs share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. Language distinguishes us from animals.因为说和写的交流方式是一种有目的的行为，所以语言是实用性的；因为语言是社会符号，语言的交流只能在所有参与者广泛理解了人类的那些非言语的暗示，动机，社会文化角色等等互相关联的因素之后才能有效进行，因此语言又是社会的，约定俗成的.语言使人嗲鹩诙?
1.2.2 definitions
一.Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols ud for human communication.
What is communication?
A process in which information is transmitted from a source (nder or speaker) to a goal (receiver or listener).
A system----since elements in it are arranged according to certain rules systematically, rather than ra
ndomly. They cannot be arranged at will. e.g. He the table cleaned. (×) bkli (×)
Why do we say language is arbitrary?
Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and its meaning, between the sounds that people u and the objects to which the sounds refer. This explains and is explained by the fact that different language have different words for the same object, it is good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language . it is only our tacit agreement of utterance and concept at work and not any innate relationship bound up in the utterance. A typical example to illustrate the arbitrary of language is a famous quotation from shakepeare’s play:”Romeo and Juliet: A ro by any other name would smell as sweet.一朵玫瑰不管它叫什么名字，闻起来都是一样香的.
Symbols----words are just the symbols associated with objects, actions, and ideas by nothing but convention. Namely, people u the sounds or voval forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to.
V ocal-------- the primary medium for all languages is sound, no matter how well developed their writing systems are. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak and listen before they write or read also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written.
Writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms.
People with little or no literacy can also be competent language urs.
Human ----language is human-specific.
Human beings have different kinds of brains and vocal capacity.
“Language Acquisition Device”(LAD)
二.What characteristics of langauge do you think should be included in a good ,comprenhensive definition of language?
Language is a rule-governed system; langauge is basically vocal; langauge is arbitrary ; langague is ud for human communication.
1.3 Design features of language 语言的结构特征
Design features------ refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, creativity/ productivity, displacement, clutural transmission and interchangeability.
Design features----- are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.(指决定了人类语言性质的特征.例如任意性，二重性，创造性，移位性，文化转移性等.)
The American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features.
What is arbitrariness?任意性
a. arbitrariness---- arbitrariness(任意性): one design feature of human language,which refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.(人类语言的本质特征之一，指语言符号的形式与意义之间没有自然的联系.)
It was discusd by Saussure first.The link between them is a matter of convention.
< “hou” uchi (Japane)
Mansion (French)
房子(Chine)
(1) arbitrary between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning语言的音和义之间的任意性
a. By “arbitrary”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. 语言的意义和语音之间没有逻辑关系。
A gog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had ud it for a gig. Language therefore is largely arbitrary.
b. But language is not absolutely em to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like “bang ” ”crash” ”roar ” ” rumble ” ”cakle”, which are motivated in a certain n.”onomatopoeia拟声词---words that sound like the sounds they describe那些发音像它们的描写的声音的词
c. some compounds (words compounded to be one word ) are not entirely arbitary either. “type ” and ”write ”are opaque or unmotivated words, while “type -writer” is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it . so we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree. arbitrary and onometopoeic effect may work at the same time.任意性和拟声可以同时起作用。Eg. The murmurous haunt of flies on summer eves.夏日黄昏，群蝇嗡嗡地非。
(2) Arbitrary at the syntactic level 句法上的任意性
According to systematic-functionalists and American functionlists, language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level. 对于系统功能语言学家和美国功能语言学家来说，语言在句法上是非任意的。Syntax-----it refers to the ways that ntences are constructed according to the grammar of arrangement.句法就是依据语法安排造句之法。
(3) Aribrtary and convention任意性和约定性
The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.语言学上的符号和它的意义之间是约定俗成的关系。
The other side of coin of arbitrariness , namely, conventionality.任意性的相反面，即约定性。conventionality----It means that in any language there are certain quences of sounds that have a conventionally accepted meaning. Tho words are customarily ud by all speakers with the same intended meaning and understood by all listeners in the same way.
Arbitrainess of langauge makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of language makes learning a language laborious.任意性赋予语言潜在的创造力，而语言的约定性又使学习语言变得费力。
There are two different schools of belief concerning arbitrariness. Most people, especially structural linguists believe that language is arbitrary by nature. Other people, however, hold that language is iconic, that is, there is a direct relation or correspondence between sound and meaning, such as onomatopoeia.(cuckoo; crash)
For the majority of animal signals, there does appear to be a clear connection between the conveyed message and the signal ud to convey it, And for them, the ts of signals ud in
communication is finite.
b. duality(二重性):--- one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of structures , such as units of the primary level are compod of elements of the condary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.(人类语言的本质特征之一，指拥有两层结构的这种特性，底层结构是上层结构的组成成分，每层都有自身的组合规则.)
duality----language is simultaneously organized at two levels or layers, namely, the level of sounds and that of meaning.
the higher level ----words which are meaningful
the lower or the basic level----sounds which are meaningless, but can be grouped and regrouped into words.
Dog: woof (but not “w-oo-f ” )
This duality of levels is, in fact, one of the most economical features of human language, since with a limited t of distinct sounds we are capable of producing a very large number of sound combinations (e.g. words) which are distinct in meaning.
The principle of economy
Linguists refer “duality” (of structure) to the fact that in all language so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.) . At the cond, lower level, it is en as a quence of gments wich lack any meaning in themlves, but which combine to form units of meaning.
According to HUZHUANGLIN, language is a system of two ts of structures or two levels, one of sound and the other of meaning. This is improtant for the workings of language.
A small number of nmantic words /units, and the units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of ntences.这些意义单位组成无数个句子。(note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of ntences!).
Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No anmial communication system enjoys this duality.
To talk about duality we must notice that language is hierarchical.说到语言的二重性，我们必须注意语言的等级性。
c. Creativity----language is resourceful. It makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its urs.(novel utterances are continually being create
d.) non-human signals ,on the other hand, appears to have little flexibility.
creativity(创造性): one design feature of human language ,by creativity we mean language is resourceful becau of its duality and its recursiveness. (指语言的能产性，因为语言有二重性和递归性.)
productivity----productivity refers to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large numb
er of ntences in one’s native language , including tho that has never heard before , but that are appropriate to the speaking situation.人们能够利用语言中原有的规则来理解从未碰到过的语言符号的特征。
< an experiment of bee communication:
The worker bee, normally able to communicate the location of a nectar source , will fail to do so if the location is really ‘new’ .
In one experiment, a hive of bees was placed at the foot of a radio tower and a food source at the top. Ten bees were taken to the top, shown the food source, and nt off to tell the rest of the hive about their find. The message was conveyed via a bee dance and the whole gang buzzed off to get the free food. They flow around in all directions, but couldn’t locate the food. The problem may be that bee communication regarding location has a fixed t of signals, all of which related to horizonta distance. The bee cannot create a ‘new ’ message indicating vertical distance.
No one has never said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon”, but he can say it when necessary, and he can understand it in right register. Different from artistic creativity, productivity never goes outside the language, thus productivity is als
o called “rule-bound creativity” (by N. Chomsky)
Productivity is unique to human language. 创造性是人类语言的独一无二的特征。
d. displacement(移位性): one design feature of human language,which means human language enable their urs to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not prent c in time and space,at the moment of communication.(指人类语言可以让使用者来表示在说话时(时间和处所)并不存在的物体，时间和观点.)
Bee communication:
When a worker bee finds a source of nectar and returns to the hive, it can perform a complex dance routine to communicate to the other bees the location of this nectar. Depending on the type of dance (round dance for nearby and tail-wagging dance, with variable tempo, for further away and how far), The other bees can work put where this newly discovered feast can be found. Bee communication has displacement in an extremely limited form. However, it must be the most recent food source.
Displacement , as one of the design features of the human languag, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not prent, as easily as he does things prent. In other words, one can r
efer to real or unreal things, things of the past, of the prent, of the future.人类语言可以被用来指不在当时当地发生的事情，这就使得人类能够谈论许多事情而不受时空限制。
Language can be ud to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speak, that means language has the feature of displacement.
Language itlf can be talked about too. When a man , for esxample, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occuring, or soemthing that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can dicide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now and there. It counldn’t be bow-wowing sorrowfully for a bone to be lost. The bee’s system, nonetheless, has a samll share of “displacement”, but it’s an unspeakable tiny share
e. Cultural transmission----genetic transmission
You acquire a language in a culture with other speakers and not from parental genes.The process
