(1) mantics: the study of linguistic meaning.
(2) truth-conditional mantics: an approach that knowing the meaning of the ntence
is the same as knowing the conditions under which the ntence is true or fal, and
knowing the meaning of a word or expression is knowing the part that it plays in the
truth or falhood of the ntence containing it.
(3) naming theory: the view that the meaning of an expression is what it refers to, or names.
(4) behaviorist theory: the view that the mean ing of a linguistic form is defined as obrvable
behaviors which is an approach drawing on psychology.
(5) u theory: the mantic theory according to which the meaning of an
expression is determined by its u in communication and more generally, in
social interaction.
(6) n: the inherent part of an expression’s meaning, together with the context,
determines its referent. For example, knowing the n of a noun phra
such as the president of the United States in 2004 allows one to determine that George
such as the president of the United States in 2004 allows one to determine that George (7) reference: (in mantics) the relationship between words and the things,
actions, events and qualities they stand for. An example in English is the relationship
between the word tree and the object “tree” (referent) in the real world.
(8) conceptual meaning: It means the meaning of words may be discusd in terms of
what they denote or refer to, also called denotative or cognitive meaning. It is the
esntial and inextricable part of what language is and is widely regarded as the
central factor in verbal communication. For instance, the conceptual meaning of “he” in English is any male person or male animal.
(9) connotative meaning: It is the communicative meaning that a word or a
combination of words has by virtue of what it refers to, over its purely conceptual
meaning. For example, the connotative meaning of “woman” is emotional, frail,
inconstant, irrational, etc.
(10) mantic field: the organization of related words and expressions into asystem
which shows their relationship to one another. For example, kinship terms such as father, mother, brother, sister, uncle, aunt belong to a s emantic field who relevant features
include generation, x, membership of the father’s or mother’s side of family.
(11) lexical gap: the abnce of a word in a particular place in a mantic field of a language.
For instance, in English we have brother versus sister, son versus daughter, but no
parate lexemes for “male” and “female” cousin.
(12) componential analysis: (in mantics) an approach to the study of meaning which analyzes
a word into a t of meaning components or mantic features. For example,
the meaning of the English word boy may be shown as [+human][+male][-adult]. (13) mantic feature: the smallest units of meaning in a word. The meaning of word
may be described as a combination of mantic components or features. For
example, the feature [+male] is part of the meaning of father, and so is the
feature [+adult], but other features are needed to make up the whole meaning of father.
Often, mantic features are established by contrast and can be stated in terms of [+] and
[-], e.g. woman has the mantic features [+human], [-male] and [+adult].
(14) synonym: the n relations of equivalence of meaning between lexical items,
< small/little and dead/decead.
(15) antonym: the n relation of various kinds of opposing meaning between lexical items,
< big/small, alive/dead and good/bad.
(16) hyponymy: the n relation between terms in a hierarchy, where a more
particular term (the hyponym) is included in the more general one (the superordinate): X
is a Y, e.g. a beech is a tree, a tree is a plant.
(17) meronym: the n relation between body and its parts which are not only ctions of
the body but defined in terms of specific functions. For example, the head is the part of
the body which carries the most important n organs, i.e. eyes, ears, no and tongue.
(18) mantic role: the way in which the referent of a noun phra is involved in the situation
described or reprented by the clau, for example as agent, patient, or
cau.
(19) entailment: the relationship between two ntences where the truth of one (the
cond) is inferred from the truth of the other, e.g. Corday assassinated Marat and Marat
is dead; if the first is true, the cond must be true.
(20) presupposition: implicit assumptions about the world required to make an utterance
meaningful or appropriate, e.g. “some tea has already been taken” is a presupposition of
“Take some more tea!”
2. (1) He waited by the bank.
a. He waited by the finan cial institution which people can keep their money in or borrowfrom.
b. He waited by the bank of the river.
(2) Is he really that kind?
a. Is he really that type of person?
b. Is he really that kind-hearted?
(3) We bought her dog biscuits.
a. We bought dog biscuits for her.
b. We bought biscuits for her dog.
(4) He saw that gasoline can explode.
a. He saw that gasoline container explode.
b. He saw that gasoline may explode.
(5) Fifty soldiers shot three wild foxes.
a. Fifty soldiers shot three wild foxes in total.
b. Each of the fifty soldiers shot three wild foxes.
(6) He saw her drawing pencils.
a. He saw her pencils for drawing.
b. He saw her drawing the picture of pencils.
3. (2) (4) (5) (8) are antonyms; (1) (3) (6) (7) are synonyms.
4. charity: kindness, sympathy, church, helpful
iron: strong, brave, hard, determined
mole: traitor, betrayal, spy
snow: pure, virgin, clean
street: homeless, living hard, pitiable
5. (1) a. hoard b. scribble c. barn, method d. olfactory
(2) a. acquire b. tell c. way d. smell
(3) a. buy, win, steal. b. talk, tell c. road, way, path d. smell
The words are less marked in their ts becau they are more usual and tend to be ud more frequently. They consist of only one morpheme and are easier to learn
and remember than others. They are also often broader in meaning and cannot be
described by using the name of another member ofthe same field.
6. homophones: a-e, break-brake; polymies: a, break, prayer, mature, trace,
houhomonyms: ear.
7. In a mantic field, not all lexical items necessarily have the same status. The less marked
members of the same mantic field (1) are usually easier to learn and
remember than more marked members; (2) consist of only one morpheme in
contrast to more marked members; (3) cannot be described by using the name of another
member of the same field; (4) tend to be ud more frequently than more marked terms;
(5) broader in meaning than more marked members; (6) are not the result of the
metaphorical usage of the name of another object or concept, but more marked are.
8. (1) a. bachelor, man, son, paperboy, pope, chief
b. bull, rooster, drake, ram.
The (a) and (b) words are male.
The (a) words are human.
The (b) words are animals.
(2) a. ask, tell, say, talk, conver
b. shout, whisper, mutter, drawl, holler
The (a) and (b) words are realized by sounds.
The (a) words are normal voice quality.
The (b) words are produced by modifying one’s normal voice quality.
(3) a. walk, run, skip, jump, hop, swim
b. fly, skate, ski, ride, cycle, canoe, hang-glide
The (a) and (b) words are sports (movement).
The (a) words are sports without instruments.
The (b) words are sports with instruments.
(1) pragmatics: a branch of linguistics that studies language in u.
(2) deixis: the marking of the orientation or position of entities and situations with respect
to certain points of reference such as the place (here/there) and time (now/then) of
utterance.
(3) reference: (in mantics) the relationship between words and the things, actions, events,
and qualities they stand for.
(4) anaphora: a process where a word or phra (anaphor) refers back to another word or
phra which was ud earlier in a text or conversation.
(5) presupposition: implicit assumptions about the world required to make an
utterance meaningful or appropriate, e.g. “some tea has already been taken” is a
presupposition of “Take some more tea!”
(6) Speech Act Theory: The theory was propod by J. L. Austin and has been developed
by J. R. Searle. Basically, they believe that language is not only ud to inform or to
describe things, it is often ud to “do things”, to perform acts. In saying
“Sorry”, you are performing an act of apology.
(7) indirect speech act: an utterance who literal meaning (location) and
intended meaning (illocution) are different. For example, Can you pass the salt?
is literally a yes/no question but is usually uttered as a request or polite directive for
action.
(8) the Cooperative Principle: a principle propod by the philosopher Paul Grice
whereby tho involved in communication assume that both parties will
normally ek to cooperate with each other to establish agreed meaning. It is compod of
4 maxims: quality, quantity, relation and manner.
(9) the Politeness Principle: politeness is regarded by most interlocutors as a means
or strategy which is ud by a speaker to achieve various purpos, such as
saving face, establishing and maintaining harmonious social relations in conversation.
This principle requires speakers to “minimize the expression of impolite beliefs”. It is
compod of 6 maxims: Maxims of Tact, Generosity, Approbation, Modesty, Agreement
and Sympathy.
(10) conversational implicature: the u of conversational maxims in the Cooperative
Principle to produce extra meaning during conversation.
2. Deictic expressions: I, now, you, that, here, tomorrow.
3. Anaphoric expressions: she, him, it.
4. (1) He bought the beer.
(2) You have a watch.
(3) We bought a car.
5. Direct acts: (1)/(5); Indirect acts: (2)/(3)/(4)
6. (a) The Maxim of Quality: (1) Do not say what you believe to be fal; (2) Do not say that
for which you lack adequate evidence.
(b) The Maxim of Quantity: (1) Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the
current purpo of the exchange); (2) Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.
(c) The Maxim of Relation: Be relevant.
(d) The Maxim of Manner: Be perspicuous (1) Avoid obscurity of expression; (2) Avoid
ambiguity; (3) Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity); (4) Be orderly.
7. The speaker is particularly careful about the maxim of Agreement in PP. The
respon begins with “well” rather than “no” in order to minimize disagreement between the speaker and hearer.
8. It is an indirect speech act. Carol invites Lara to a party, but Lara wants to decline the
invitation. To be po lite, she doesn’t choo a direct refusal, instead she says “I’ve got an exam tomorrow” as a reasonable excu to decline the invitation. In this way, she minimizes the expression of impolite beliefs, thus the utterance conforms to PP
(1) discour: a general term for examples of language u, i.e. language
pro-duced as the result of an act of communication. It refers to the larger units of language such as paragraphs, conversations and interviews.
(2) discour analysis: the study of how ntences in written and spoken
language form larger meaning units such as paragraphs, conversations and interviews.
(3) given information: the information that the addresr believes is known to
