英语词汇学名词解释

2024年3月3日发(作者：宣萱)

英语词汇学笔记之“名词解释篇”

--- A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and

meaning and syntactic funtion.

2. Morpheme --- A morpheme is the minimal significant element in the composition

of words.

3. Free morphemes or Content morphemes (Free root) --- They are morphemes

that may constitute words by themlves : cat, walk.

4. Bound Morphemes or Grammatical morphemes --- They are morphemes that

must appear with at least one other morpheme, either bound or free : Catts, walk+ing.

5. Bound root --- A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental

meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine

with other morphemes to make words. Take -dict- for example: it conveys the

meaning of "say or speak" as a Latin root, but not as a word. With the prefix

pre-(=before) we obtain the verb predict meaning "tell beforehand".

6. Affixes --- Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify

meaning or funtion.

7. Inflectional morphemes or Inflectional affixes --- Affixes attaches to the end of

words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional ,thus known as

inflectional morphemes.

There is the regular plural suffix -s(-es) which is added to nouns such as machines,

desks.

8. Derivational morphemes or Derivational affixes --- Derivational affixes are

affixes added to other morphemes to create new words.

9. Prefixes --- Prefixes are affixes that come before the word, such as, pre+war.

10. Suffixes --- suffixes are affixes that come after the word, for instance, blood+y.

Derivational morphemes/ derivational affixes --- A process of forming new words

by the addition of a word element. Such as prefix, suffix, combing form to an already

existing word.

Prefixation ---- is the formation of new words by adding prefix or combing form to

the ba. (It modify the lexical meaning of the ba)

Suffixation--- is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or combing form to

the ba and usually changing the word-class of the ba. Such as boy. Boyish (noun-

adjective)

11. Root --- A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyd

without total loss of identity.

12. Opaque Words--Words that are formed by one content morpheme only and

cannot be analyd into parts are called opaque words, such as axe, glove.

13. Transparent Words--Words that consist of more than one morphemes and can be

gmented into parts are called transparent words: workable(work+able),

door-man(door+man).

14. Morphs--Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete

units known as morphs. They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning.

15. Allomorps--Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to

their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs. For

instance, the morpheme of plurality {-s} has a number of allomorphs in different

sound context, e.g. in cats /s/, in bags /z/, in match /iz/.

16. Derivation or Affixation--Affixation is generally defined as the formation of

words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. This process is also

known as derivation.

17. Prefixation--Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to

stems.

18. Suffixation--Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to

stems.

19. Compounding（Compositon）--Compounding is a process of word-formation by

which two independent words are put together to make one word. E.g. hen-packed;

short-sighted.

20. Conversion--Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of

one class to another class. This process of creating new words without adding any

affixes is also called zero-derivation. E.g. dry (a.)-->to dry.

21. Back-formation-- is a process of word-formation by which a word is created by

the deletion of a suppod affix. E.g. editor entered the language before edit.

22. Abbreviation ( shortening )-- is a process of word-formation by which the

syllables of words are abbreviated or shortened.

23. Abbreviation includes four types : I. Clipped words II. Initialisms III. Acronyms

IV. Blends.

I. Clipped words--are tho created by clipping part of a word, leaving only a piece

of the old word. E.g. telephone-->phone, professional-->pro.

II. Initialisms--are words formed from the initial letters of words and pronounced as

letters. E.g. IMF/ai em ef/=International Monetary Fund.

III. Acronyms--are words formed from the initial letters of word and pronounced as

words. E.g. NATO/'neito/=North Atlantic Treaty Organization.

IV. Blends--are words that are combined by parts of other words. E.g.

smoke+fog=smog.

24. Polymy--The same word may have two or more different meanings. This is

known as "polymy". The word "flight", for example, may mean "passing through

the air", "power of flying", "air of journey", etc.

*Two approaches to polymy: Diachronic and Synchronic

Diachronically, we study the growth or change in the mantic structure of a word ,

or how the mantic structure of a word has developed from primary meaning to the

prent polymic state .

Synchronically, we are interested in the comparative value of individual meanings

and the interrelation between the central meaning and the condary meanings.

*Two process leading to polymy: Radiation and concatenation

Radiation : Semantically, radiation is the process in which the primary or central

meaning stands at the center while condary meanings radiate from it in every

direction like rays.

Concatenation : is a mantic process in which the meaning of a word moves

gradually away from its first n by successive shifts, like the links of a chain, untill

there is no connection between the n that is finally developed and the primary

meaning.

25. Homonyms--are generally defined as words different in meaning but either

identical both in sound and spelling or identical『a.同一的，完全相同的』 only in

sound or spelling.

26. Perfect Homonyms--are words identical both in sound and spelling,but different

in meaning。

E.g. bear n. a large heavy animal;

bear v. to put up with

27. Homographs--are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and

meaning. E.g.

sow /s3u/ v. to scatter eds

sow /sau/ n. female adult pig

28. Homophones--are words identical only insound but different in spelling and

meaning. E.g.

dear /di3/ n. a loved person

deer /di3/ n. a kind of animal

29. Synonyms--can be defined as words different in sound and spelling but most

nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning. E.g.

maid / girl They are the same meaning of "a young female".

30. Absolute(Complete, Perfect)Synonyms--are words which are identical in

meaning in all its aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning,

including conceptual and associative meanings. For instance, composition /

compounding They have the perfect same meaning in Lexicology.

31. Relative (near,partial) synonyms--are similar or nearly the same in

denotation ,but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given

quality.

Take stagger/reel/totter for example. Stagger implies unsteady movement

characterized by a loss of balance and failure to maintain a fixed cour. E.g. stagger

under a heavy load; Reel suggests a swaying or lurching so as to appear on the verge

of falling. E.g. The drunken man reeled down the hall; Totter indicates the uncertain,

faltering steps of a feeble old person or of an infant learning to walk.

32. Sources of Synonyms

I. Borrowing : Native (ask)--French (question)--Latin (interrogate)

II. Dialects and regional English: railway (BrE)--railroad (AmE)

III. Figurative『a. 比喻的，象征的』 and euphemistic 『a.委婉的』u of words:

occupation--walk of life (fig.)

lie--distort the fact (euph.)

IV. Coincidence with idiomatic expressions:

win--gain the upper hand

hesitate--be in two minds

33. Discrimination of Synonyms

I. Difference in denotation : differ in the range and intensity of meaning.

E.g. extend--increa--expand (range)

want--wish--desire (intensity)

II. Difference in connotation『n.涵义，含蓄』: differ in the stylistic and emotive

colouring.

E.g. ask (neutral); beg (colloquial); request (formal)

III. Difference in application: in usage.

E.g. empty box ; vacant at

34. Antonymy--is concerned with mantic opposition.

35. Antonyms--are words which are opposite in meaning.

36. Types of Antonyms

I. Contradictory terms: mutually oppod; true oppositeness of meaning; no

possibility between them; E.g. alive--dead; prent--abnt

II. Contrary terms: gradable

E.g. rich--(well-to-do)--poor;

hot--(warm,cool)--cold

III. Relative terms: relational oppositeness

E.g. parent--child; husband--wife; ll--buy

IV. Semantic incompatibles: contrastingness.

E.g. north,south,east,west;

spring,summer,autumn,winter.

37. Hyponymy--deals with the relationship of mantic inclusion. That is , the

meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word.

The specific words are known as hyponyms. For instance, tulip and ro are

hyponyms of flower. The general word flower is the superordinate term and the

specific ones tulip and ro are the subordinate terms.

38. Extension of meaning (generalization)--is a term referring to the widening of

meaning. It is a process by which a word which originally had a specialized meaning

has now become generalized. "Picture", for example, originally denoted mere

"painting", but now has come to include "drawings" and even "photographs".

39. Narrowing of meaning(specialization)--is a term referring to the shrinking of

meaning. It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or

specialized n.

E.g. When garage was first borrowed from French, it meant simply "any safe place"

but now "a place for storing cars".

40. Elevation or amelioration『n.改善，改良』--refers to the process by which words

ri from humble beginnings to positions of importance.

E.g. Marshal and constable meant a "keeper of hors", but now have rin to a

"high-ranking army officer" and "policeman" respectively.

41. Degradation or pejoration of meaning--It is a process whereby words of good

origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to be ud in derogatory

n.

E.g. A wench was a "country girl" and now means "prostitute".

42. Metaphor『n.隐喻』--is a figure of speech containing an implied comparison, in

which a word or pha ordinarily and primarily ud of one thing is applied to another.

E.g. the teeth of a comb; blood bank; He has a heart of stone; The curtain of night has

fallen.

43. Metonymy『n.借代』--is the device in which we name something by one of its

attributes, as in crown for king, the White Hou for the President. The kettle is

boiling. (kettle for water in the kettle)

44. Synecdoche『n.提喻法』--means using a part for a whole, an individual for a class,

a material for a thing or the rever of any of the.

For example, bread for food, the army for a soldier.

He is a poor creature. --creature for man

45. Analogy『n.类似，相似』--is a process whereby words are created in imitation of

other words.

For example, telethon an talkathon are created on the model of marathon.

46. Idiom--Strictly speaking, idioms are expressions that are not readily

understandable from their literal meanings of individual elements. For example, fly

off the handle (become excessively angry) and put up with (tolerate). In a broad n,

idioms may include colloquialisms, catchphras, slang expressions ,proverbs,etc.

47. Characteristics of Idioms:

I. Long u

II. Unitary meaning; mantic unity.

III. Syntactic frozenness; structural stability.

48. Figurative idioms--are idioms that include metaphor. Strictly speaking, they are

true idioms. E.g. a dog in the manger.

49. Sources of Figurative idioms:

I. Coloquialisms: big wheel (an influential or important person)

II. Literary expressions: to kill the fatted calf

III. Slang: in the soup(in rious trouble)

IV. Foreign idioms: sour grapes.

50. Motivation--accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its

meaning.

51. Onomatopoeic Motivation--The words were created by imitating the natural

sounds or nois. For example, bang, ping-pang, crow by cocks, etc.

52. Morphological Motivation--Compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic

words and the meaning of many are the sum total of the morphemes combined. For

instance, airmail means to "mail by air", miniskirt is "a small skirt".

53. Semantic Motivation--refers to the mental associations suggested by the

conceptual meaning of a word.

E.g. When we say the mouth of a river, we associate the opening part of the river with

the mouth of a human being or an animal.

54. Etymological Motivation--The history of the word explains the meaning of the

word