The Mobility Paradigm in Government Theory and Practice:
A Strategic Framework
Hans J (Jochen) Scholl
University of Washington
The Information School
Box 352840, Seattle, WA
98195-2840, U.S.A.
形容手粗糙的词语E-mail: jscholl@u.washington.edu
faculty.washington.edu/jscholl
Abstract :Except for space exploration, disaster management, law enforcement,
homeland curity, and the military, government has traditionally not been found at the
金光闪闪类似词语
forefront of using the newest technologies available. Information systems and rvices in
the public ctor have been no exception to the rule. With the advent of electronic
Government, however, the gap between private-ctor and government information and
transaction rvices appears to be narrowing in terms of availability, quality, and
sophistication. Mobile applications it has been speculated may have the caliber of
accelerating this trend. This paper prents a pha model and a framework of strategic
choice, which adds to the academic knowledge in the field of organizational development
and transformation induced by mobile technology diffusion. It also helps inform
practitioners and the strategic decision-making process when exploring and employing the
mobility paradigm within electronic Government.
Keywords: mobile technology diffusion, fully mobile wirelessly connected (FMWC),
mobile application class, backend integration, business process change, organizational
transformation, business-centric orientation, information-centric orientation.
1. Introduction
The pervasive organizational adaptation of new ba technologies has always taken extended periods of time after their inception (Forrester, 1975; Scholl & Belardo, 2001). In recent years, with the Internet and wireless connectivity, two originally independent ba technologies have begun to rapidly merge. Unlike other technology fusions in the past, this technology merger appears to exert an immediate impact on the complex transformation process known under digital government, which is also referred to as electronic Government (e-Government, e-Gov).
结草衔环
Within this context of digital government mobile government, as some refer to the u of mobile devices and applications over wireless networks, opens new dimensions to and avenues towards that vision. In government theory and practice, however, it is little understood so far what needs to be considered when embarking on the mobility paradigm in government. Within their digital government initiatives, few governments, if any, have developed or are in the process of executing a strategic plan aimed at incorporating the mobile dimension. In this paper, key issues of incorporating
the mobility paradigm into an existing e-Gov strategy and its further development are outlined. The paper develops a framework for systematically addressing tho issues and for enabling officials to make informed strategic choices within the overall digital government strategy.
2. The U of Mobile Technology in Government—Where is it Headed?
In the context of information technology diffusion, in general (Gibson & Nolan, 1974; Nolan, 1979; Scholl & Belardo, 2001), as well as in electronic Government, in particular (Fountain, 2001;
Layne & Lee, 2001; Turban & King, 2003), various stage/pha and growth models have been prented, which in esnce all converge to a three-pha model (e figure 2):
In the first pha existing process and applications are reprented or reproduced by means of the new technology and method. In e-Government, web-bad information publishing, web-enabled transactions bad on existing backend systems, and unifying portals for one-stop access are typical for this pha. Low-hanging fruits are harvested in this pha, experience with the new technology and its various us is gained both at the provider and ur sites, and the basic utility of the new delivery mode is established.
消防月In the cond pha, changes to process and underlying structure occur, since the new delivery mode has been found functionally attractive, economically superior, and more convenient. Two forces take an effect in the same direction: (1) a (demand-related) push and (technical and organizational feasibility-related) pull towards more rvice functionality, integration, and interoperation of applications and databas at the backend, which cannot be attained without certain changes to the underlying process and structures. The more the changes involve core process, the more complex they become along technical, organizational, informational, and social lines.
Figure 1 A Diffusion Model of Mobile Technology in Government
During the third pha the basic integration and interoperation of core process as well as backend applications and databas along with completely new us and applications grow to such an extent that the new technology along with its process and organizational underpinnings reaches a critical mass, increasingly becoming an ever more preferred mode of delivery, which ultimately renders condary or even obliterates other modes of delivery. In a feedback fashion, new organizational structures and social networks emerge within which the new technology us are arranged and embedded, that is, technology diffusion cannot be divorced from co-emerging new organizational and social structures, and vice versa. As pointed out before, the diffusion model prented here is, in fact, a fusion of similar models introduced by the same and other authors before, however, it deliberately dispens with unnecessary details or with single-factor emphasis (e.g., technology). Like in other situations of technology diffusion, so also for mobile technology there have been precursor phas, which are omitted from this model. In fact, various formats of mobile technology (in its analog versions) have been around for decades. Also, digital formats have been ud for some time. However, it is only by the turn into the 21st century that fully mobile, wirelessly connected applications and their front-end device and backbone infrastructures have reached a
凉拌海螺degree of universality, robustness, basic integration, and sophistication that other than very dedicated and specific us become possible, which mark this model’s time origin (year=0, equivalent to the year 2000).
In the wider context of electronic Government, mobile applications it can be argued pertain to all four stages of Layne and Lee’s frequently cited 4-stage model of e-Gov development (Layne & Lee, 2001). However, truly mobile and novel applications may require higher degrees of integration both vertically and horizontally than stationary e-Government applications. While the diffusion model provides context and an understanding of direction and phas of the transformation process, it does not lend itlf to any analytical foundation for strategic choice and decision-making with regard to mobile applications, and how tho might fit into the overall strategic scheme. In the following ctions, tho foundations are developed and linked to the diffusion model.
3. How Do Mobile Applications Fit into the Overall E-Government Strategy?
Digital or electronic government holds the promi of agile, lean, accountable, and citizen-centric government operations, which are responsive, fast, effective, efficient, and sufficiently integrated (Aldrich et al., 2002; Bush, 2002; Osborne & Gaebler, 1992; Relyea, 2002; Savas, 1982). Recent stu
厦门一日游攻略自由行dies find evidence for the rapid expansion of web-bad informational and transactional G2B (government-to-business) and G2C (government-to-citizen) rvices (for example, cf., (C. H. Kaylor, 2005)), which are bad on interoperating backend systems. While the new Web-bad government rvices offer both business and citizens a new level of immediacy, effectiveness, and convenience in the mode of rvice delivery, they still require a stationary connection as well as a stationary access device. The same may hold true for current G2G (government-to-government) applications, although studies on G2G applications are less frequent (cf., (Scholl, 2005a)).
With the merger of the two ba technologies of the Internet and of wireless connectivity, and, also with the advent of versatile and robust mobile devices geared for universal us, a new class of applications, rvices, and information flows in government have become a possibility. The new applications rve nomadic urs and hosts and expand the reach of tho rvices (Capra et al., 2002). Since they potentially also reshape the very nature of government rvices and operations, once fully developed and backend-integrated, the new class of applications and information flows may require no less than the fundamental rethinking of the information and transaction landscape in electronic Government.
Mobile applications fall into two broad class: (1) information and transaction support for traditional
types of work in the field and the back office, and (2) information and transaction support for novel types of work in the field and the back office. As Gorlenko and Merrick point out, fully mobile wirelessly connected (FMWC) applications can further be distinguished with regard to their mobile suitability as esntial, adapted, or unsuitable (Gorlenko & Merrick, 2003). Mobile applications in e-Government, hence, provide six distinct situations, which need the attention of planners and decision-makers:
(1) An existing type of field- or back-office work may be effectively enhanced and reorganized
when supported by a FMWC application; for example, a police officer in arch of an address, from which an emergency call originated, may be automatically guided by audio-visual clues provided by a handheld device while she is moving in her car or on foot towards the target address; an operation of this type requires significant backend data and application integration as well as backend process changes. Such us may become characteristic beginning in the cond pha of mobile technology diffusion in government.
(2) An existing type of field- or back-office may be supported by an originally stationary
application who u is extended to the mobile environment; for example, a fireguard
receiving audio-visual information from the EPA toxic storage databa when approaching on foot a building which was t afire; the backend data and application integration effort for enabling such mobile rvice may be modest, since it interfaces a mobile device with an existing application in an incremental fashion. Such us may rve as main targets in the first pha of mobile technology diffusion in government.
(3) An existing typ e of field- or back-office may be unsuitable for the utilization of a FMWC
application; for example, a social worker taking notes on paper in a noisy, ill-lit, and filthy environment, which current handheld technology cannot cope with; in such cas the technological development of mobile devices may be monitored for improvements that overcome the device/environment-related limitations.
(4) A novel type of field- or back-office supported by an esntial FMWC application; for
example, a fieldworker visiting elderly citizens for providing comprehensive information and a wide range of onsite rvices such as online form filling etc.; as in ca (1), an operation of this type requires significant backend data and application integration as well as backend process changes. Such us may become characteristic from the cond pha of mobile technology diffusion in gove
rnment and onward.
(5) A novel type field- or back-office supported by an adapted FMWC application; for example,
an inspector issuing a permit to a business onsite immediately after the inspection has been completed; as in ca (2), the backend data and application integration effort for enabling such mobile rvice may be modest, since it interfaces a mobile device with an existing application in an incremental fashion. Such us may rve as main targets in the first pha of mobile technology diffusion in government.
(6) A novel type of field- or back-office work which cannot be utilized in every environmental or
social context; for example, onsite rvices, which cannot be activated due to privacy concerns (avoiding rving somebody before a crowd of obrving and listening bystanders). As in ca
(3), the technological development of mobile devices may be monitored for improvements that
overcome the device/environment-related limitations.
Figure 2 The Two-Dimensional Model of Mobile Government Applications
In summary, adapted FMWC applications are expected to prevail in the first pha of the mobile technology in government, while esntial FMWC applications move into the picture beginning to dominate the cond and third pha. The sophistication of both mobile and stationary applications can be expected to ri over time, so will the complexity of the technical backend integration and organizational process redesign increa. From today’s perspective, also when compared to the patterns of diffusion of other ba technologies (Forrester, 1975; Scholl & Belardo, 2001), the introduction of and full adjustment to the mobility paradigm in government will most probably span over veral decades, in which quite a number of new generations of ever more powerful
mobile technology platforms must be expected to emerge. E-Government strategies, hence, have to account for a high rate of change and novelty with regard to the technologies involved.
4. Specific Challenges
As in electronic commerce, so in e-Government, FMWC information and transaction rvices for nomadic urs po a number of rious technological, organizational, social, and managerial challenges. Among the technology challenges range the sudden loss of connectivity, the fluctuation of bandwidth, battery power loss, rapid changes in location, varying device capability, asynchronicity
of task initiation and outcome, data and context sharing to name a few (Capra et al., 2002). Organizational and technical hurdles occur when combining, integrating, and interoperating traditional stationary/fixed network-bad applications with FMWC rvices. Moreover, mobile applications apparently need integration regarding their most pervasive modes of voice and data. However, so far, according to nior government executives, for example, in Washington’s Puget Sound region, who governments continue to rank as one of the most advanced e-Government sites in the US (Ho, 2002; C. Kaylor et al., 2001; C. H. Kaylor, 2005), the integration of voice and data at application or databa level is non-existent (Scholl, 2004). Yet, voice messages may need to be prerved in both voice and text formats for further us. Also, text-to-voice conversions may add significant value to mobile applications.清楚的近义词
In general, when integrating and interoperating mobile applications with backend systems, also rious performance, integrity, and curity issues may result from such efforts (Capra et al., 2002). As a conquence of implementing applications and us under the mobility paradigm, also social and organizational tensions may ari due to abrupt changes in workplace and field relationships.
5. Elements of a Strategic Approach to Bringing FMWC to e-Government
When confronting IT-related investment decisions, government leadership it has been propod can choo between three strategic approaches, labeled as modest, moderate, and elaborate (Dawes et al., 2004). Each of tho three approaches bears certain opportunities and risks. While the modest approach “involves a minimum investment in effort, time, and resources, “ the moderate approach would include “advanced features or options and a wider range of internal and external information sources” (p. 117). Finally, according to the authors, the elaborate approach encompass even more advanced features, etc., “for the most ambitious project,” which address the organization’s need (ibid.). When this framework is applied as a guide to investing in FMWC technology in government, the fourth option of “wait and e” appears as an obvious and valid choice, which is obrvably (and, in some cas, intentionally) employed by quite a number of governments. The strategic choices regarding FMWC technology investments in government, hence, are the following: (1) wait and e, (2) modest backend integration of FMWC applications, (3) moderate backend and voice/data integration of FMWC applications, and (4) elaborate backend, voice/data, inter-application integration of FMWC applications. In the following the specific challenges, opportunities, threats, potential benefits, and trade-offs of the approaches are discusd.
5.1. The Wait-and-See Approach
The strategic approach of “wait-and-e”, “wu wei” (Chine for going with the flow), or of “doing nothing” has been obrved in public administration for a long time (cf., (Donaldson, 1999)). Also, in private firms, practitioners have reportedly been using the approach (Whitemyer, 2002). In the strategic management literature, the approach has also been studied under the label of laggards or “late movers” (Lee et al., 2000; Shamsie et al., 2004). Among the specific challenges and threats in the wait-and-e approach to FMWC adoption and integration (1) stakeholder dissatisfaction, (2) delayed learning-by-doing, (3) misd opportunities for rvice-level, functional, and cost improvement, and (4) public criticism may rank highest. A government, which does not move
ahead in terms of FMWC adoption and integration, while neighboring jurisdictions demonstrate significant rvice-level, cost, and functional improvements, will most probably confront an increasing dissatisfaction on part of its various internal and external stakeholders. Also, delaying the learning process will lead to less informed decision-making and diminished attractiveness of that particular jurisdiction as a location of choice. To the extent that FMWC applications elwhere demonstrably provide significant rvice-level, functional, and cost improvements, the wait-and-e approach can become wasteful and costly, which will finally draw increasing public pressures and criticism. On the positive side, no action and the deliberate postponement of commitment to particula
r architectures and platforms in times of rapid changes in FMWC ba technologies it can be argued is a strategically sound approach. A cautious wait-and-e strategy does not preclude environmental scanning and FMWC component evaluation. Decision-makers should be able to clearly identify and continuously check a t of indicators, which would help determine whether or not the decision point for changing from the no-action approach into one of the three action approaches has been reached or pasd.
5.2. The Modest Backend Integration Approach to FMWC Applications
英语试题Unlike the wait-and-e approach, the modest backend integration approach to FMWC applications although limited in effort, resources, and time allotted involves the frontend and backend components, The most likely areas of application are tho of adapted FMWC applications where existing stationary applications or even novel backend applications, are extended to include FMWC us. From a perspective of balancing risk against opportunity, this approach might turn out to become the most popular. While the organization employing it embarks on the FMWC learning curve in both its technical and non-technical aspects, the risk remains contained, while the FMWC principle is incrementally introduced and implemented. This evolutionary approach provides leeway for making mistakes at acceptable cost levels while striving for gains in experience, rvice level, functio
n, and cost. The backend integration is estimated to be technically less complex, since the backend system us are (only) extended, but not modified at greater extent. The effect of information flows from and to nomadic urs can be studied and understood from a perspective of a known background including the most likely insidious curity problems which will undoubtedly emerge (for example, such as packet sniffing, code breaking, among others). The attractiveness of the modest approach lies in its limited commitment of resources, time, and efforts, on the one hand, and its advancements in learning and FMWC practice, on the other hand. Compared with wait-and-e approach it adds the element of own action and learning as well as the proof of concept to stakeholders at a relatively low risk. Situations emerging from this approach remain manageable, since real cris appear to be unlikely, by and large.
5.3. The Moderate Backend and Voice/data Integration of FMWC Applications
Under the third approach the government agency would commit considerably more effort, resources, and time to FMWC application and backend integration than in the modest approach. Clearly, the risk of failure increas significantly with this approach. However, some agencies may find themlves in desperate need for more effective and efficient as well as completely novel FMWC applications such as in the cas of law enforcement, the military, or homeland curity, where the n
ature of the mission itlf and the rapidly increasing threat of hazards may preclude any no-action or modest approaches in the first place. Government agencies with tho scopes of duty are among the traditional, long-time urs of (mostly analog), however, generally stand-alone, that is, not back-end integrated, mobile technologies. Tho agencies already endue a deep understanding of the mobile paradigm including the necessity of voice/data, frontend/backend, as well as application integration. However, both application integration and backend integration on the moderate level are more complex than on the modest level, which, on the other hand, holds the potential of reaping the benefits of more effective and efficient FMWC us. The moderate approach may already induce significant process changes at the backend, which can lead to additional organizational challenges (cf., (Scholl, 2005a)). This approach requires a high degree of readiness for technological and organizational change. It also bears a higher risk of failure due to
