Contributions of Humanistic Psychology上海周边游推荐一日游
杨州
to Positive Psychology
Arthur Warmoth
Stella Resnick
Ilene Serlin
Division 32 of the American Psychological Association
In his presidential address, Martin E.P. Seligman (1999) laid out a vision for a "positive psychology" which promis expanded horizons for future psychological rearch and practices. It also echoes themes expresd by humanistic psychologists over the past three decades, initiated by the work of two other presidents of APA, Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, leading founders of Humanistic Psychology. The term "positive psychology" itlf was first ud in Maslow's ground-breaking book Motivation and Personality (1954) the last chapter of which, entitled "Toward a Positive Psychology," lays out a rearch agenda that has much in common with Seligman's proposal.
This article will explore the common ground between positive and humanistic psychology, and respond to positive psychology's uful challenges to humanistic psychology (Seligman, 1999, personal communication) about rearch and a concern for social values, becau the outcome of a dialogue between them can help the human condition: a goal that is central to both.
This paper therefore begins with a brief review of the humanistic movement and its ongoing call for a more positive psychology. We then move into an exploration of the unique rearch approaches and areas of study dictated by the primacy in humanistic psychology of human experience. We conclude by showing how positive psychology can gain from recognizing the merit of experiential, process-oriented rearch methodologies and perhaps most importantly, by entering into a larger dialogue with humanistic psychologists for the rious investigation of such metapsychological issues as the nature of truth and ways of knowing, and the role of choice, values, and meaning in positive human and social evolution.
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Humanistic Origins of Positive Psychology改革开放30年
The first pha of humanistic psychology, which covered the period between 1960 to 1980, was largely driven by Maslow's agenda for a positive psychology. It articulated a view of the human being
as irreducible to parts, needing connection, meaning, and creativity. As the intellectual core of the human potential movement, humanistic psychology had a broad impact both on the field of psychology as well as the culture at large. This holistic perspective on psychological development and lf-actualization laid the foundation for the professions of individual and family counling (Satir, 1964) and organizational development consulting(Massarik, 1992). The study of peak experiences
孙子满月酒邀请函and lf-actualization was popularized throughout the culture. Humanistic psychology also affected the educational system with its views on lf-esteem and lf-help, offering tools for personal and spiritual transformation. For example, the state of California funded a study of lf-esteem which was sponsored by John Vasconcellos, past president of the Association for Humanistic Psychology and at the time Chairman of the Ways and Means Committee of the California Asmbly. (Mecca, Smelr & Vasconcellos, 1989).
The Humanistic Psychology Division (32) of the American Psychological Association was founded in September, 1971 in respon to the call for theory construction, rearch, and clinical professional education in humanistic psychology. Humanistic psychology has continued as an organized movement that focus rearch and educational efforts on the study of human experience. Besides
Division 32, the organizational structures that carry the movementforward include the Association for Humanistic Psychology, as well as the graduate programs of the members of the Consortium for Diversified Psychology Programs, Institute of Transpersonal Psychology, Saybrook Graduate School, Seattle University, Sonoma State University, State University of West Georgia, Union Institute, Universidad AutÛnoma de la Laguna (Mexico), and Harmony Institute (Russia). It includes The Humanistic Psychologist and the Journal of Humanistic Psychology as well as the Association for Transpersonal Psychology and the Journal of Transpersonal Psychology.
The first brochure of Division 32 stated in its mission statement: "Humanistic psychology aims to be faithful to the full richness of human experience. Its foundations include philosophical humanism, existentialism, and phenomenology. Its approach to the science and profession of psychology accepts the challenge to develop a systematic and rigorous understanding of human beings." Humanistic psychologists investigate not only suffering and trauma, but also growth and creativity, dreams, ethics and values (Frankl, 1959; James, 1961; Maslow, 1971; May, 1958). They want to know what works, and how to asss outcome in therapy (Bohart, 1997; Schneider, & Eagle, 1996-7).
Humanistic Rearch Methodologies
经典日本电影A critical issue in developing a positive psychology is whether the dominant objectifying approach of twentieth century experimental psychology is sufficient to measure the uniqueness of human experience. For most of the past century, psychology has preferred a model of science that deals with phenomena that can be treated as "objects of study." There is no question but that objective information about psychological and social systems can make important contributions to positive psychology. However, human beings are not just objects, but they are also subjects. As conscious beings, they have a rich subjective inner experience, compod of more than thoughts. The challenge is to find a methodology which is adequate to describe this full range of the experience of being human. Humanistic psychologists, while embracing the need for rigorous science, have therefore argued for a science which captures the primacy of experience over abstract truths, uniqueness along with universality, descriptive or qualitative rearch methodology which captures the unique lived experience (Giorgi, 1970, 1971), "the centrality of the experiencing human being and the actualization of the human potential"
(Arons, personal communication, 1999). This science would include the full range of human experience: the place for the dark side, the romantic side, and an appreciation of awe (Schneider, 1998; Schneider & May, 1975), the importance of creativity and the body (Arons, 1995; Criswell, ; El
kins, 1999; Greening, 1977; Krippner, 1988; May, 1975; Resnick, 1997; Richards, 1997; Selver, C., 1966; Serlin, 1996, 1999; Stern, ) and authenticity (May, 1953, 1958; Bugental, 1963, 1989).
A cond methodological issue concerns values and the nature of choice and free will. Positive psychology is about choosing wily, individually, as persons and collectively, as social groups. Choosing well or wily can be illuminated by the scientific study of objectified human nature, but the process of choice is a conscious experience that can only be revealed fully through conscious lf-reflection and dialogue.
A third metatheoretical issue is about the nature of truth. Humanistic psychology is both holistic and descriptive; it does not understand by analyzing something into parts, but instead focus on the whole aspect of a phenomenon, all levels of body, speech and mind, the phenomenon in context to its surroundings and its history. Maslow (1971) said: "If I had to conden the thesis of this book into one ntence…I would h ave stresd the profoundly holistic nature of human nature in contradiction to the analytic-atomistic Newtonian approach of the behaviorisms and Freudian psychoanalysis" (p. ix). Understanding human nature means taking all levels-individual, group, social and political, physiological, cognitive, affective, imaginal, spiritual-into account (Allport, 1937; May, 1960; Maslow, 1971). Humanistic psychology is also non-dualistic. From its holistic perspective, pola
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rizing psychology into "good" and "bad" (Descartes, 1972) splits the fullness of the paradox (Kuhn, T., 1962; May, 1981; Schneider, 1999), and therefore miss the complexity and nuances of the phenomenon. As holistic, humanistic psychology understands that the good, or the positive, takes its meaning from its dialogical relationship to "the bad" or "the negative." Meaning also comes through all the ns (Berman, 1989), not just through the eyes or the ears. We hear, n, feel, taste, shapes. It is a meaning spelled out, not conceptually in linear word or letter quences, but in multiple, complex, dynamic images (Ricoeur, 1976; Gergen, 1994; Laing, R.D., 1969). Images are not objective objects, but are fluid, interactive, and meaningful (Hillman, 1979; Cay, 1976; Sartre, 1968).
Fourth, the concept of "positive" itlf only makes n in the context of lived human experience. What is positive is desirable, a category that can only be explored experientially. Positive psychology must therefore confront the epistemological issues that have been at the core of humanistic psychology.
Perhaps one of the most important recent contributions pushing psychology toward a more complex epistemology is Howard Gardner's (1983) theory of multiple intelligences. Gardner's interdisciplinary approach us data from behavioral analysis, neurophysiology, genetics, and the social ecology of a
daptation to identify ven (more or less) types of intelligence: Linguistic, musical, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, and the personal intelligences (intra & inter). The linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligences are easily modeled by computers and have been the focus of
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considerable rearch in cognitive psychology. The last category, interpersonal intelligence, is indeterminate in number and less widely rearched. However, Daniel Goleman (1997) has explored the implications of the ability to cognitively interpret and manage one's own and other's emotional reaction as one very important dimension of psychological adaptation. Humanistic psychologists have consistently recognized diver forms of abilities and varieties of intelligence.
Phenomenological methods can also be ud to sharpen and deepen perception of the phenomena. The concept of the "felt-n" (Gendlin,1978) describes a kind of perception which draws on bodily nsations to deepen images and thoughts. "Kinaesthetic imagining" (Serlin, 1996) is another method of developing kinaesthetic intelligence, a way of knowing through body nsation and meaning-making that is uful for problem-solving and with vere psychological or physical disturbances (Serlin, 1999).
A positive psychology needs to address not only the question of what the various forms of intellige
nce are in operational and neurophysiological terms, but also what it means to u the forms of knowing skillfully. Humanistic psychology has placed conscious human experience at the core of the psychological enterpri. During the first half of the twentieth century, consciousness had been marginalized by psychoanalysis' emphasis on the unconscious and banned by the behaviorists' focus exclusively on objectively obrvable behavior. Drawing on sources such as the Gestalt psychologists and the European phenomenologists and existentialists, the founding generation of humanistic psychologists argued that the conscious experience of creative, healthy persons should be at the center of psychological investigation. In their view, a complete psychology should include issues of freedom and creativity, choice and responsibility, values and fulfillment. This in turn requires at least at the ont a thorough phenomenological description of various forms of consciousness in action.
Seligman offers an ambitious agenda for positive psychology: "We can articulate a vision of the good life. We can show the world what actions lead to well-being, to positive individuals, to flourishing communities, and to a just society. Ideally, psychology should be able to help document what kind of families result in the healthiest children, what work environments support the greatest satisfaction among workers, and what policies result in the strongest civic commitment. Yet we have scant knowl
edge of what makes life worth living. We know very little about how normal people flourish under more benign conditions" (1999,p. 560). The goals clearly call for the subtle and sophisticated exploration of the varieties of human experience.
The emphasis on the study of human experience had led humanistic psychology to confront the dilemma of appropriate methodology. In general, the solutions to this problem have derived from Edmund Husrl's phenomenology (Giorgi, 1970, Valle & King, 1978; Reason & Rowan, 1981). They have come to be grouped under the rubric of qualitative methods, which includes a variety of approaches that have also developed in the other social sciences and even in the humanities. The approaches are characterized
by what Clifford Geertz (1973, following Gilbert Ryle) calls "thick description," rather than by the development of cau-and-effect models of explanation.
The experience of "Positive", for example, would best be understood through description. Humanistic rearchers would u a concrete, phenomenological method to explore the phenomenon of "Positive" by re-invoking the experience or the memory of that experience in the "co-rearcher" (Polkinghorne, 1988). The methods of the humanistic psychologist derive from Edmund
Husrl's phenomenology, which advocates a return to the "things themlves" (Husrl, 1960). The methods are grouped under the rubric of qualitative methods, which include other approaches ud in anthropology, other social sciences and the humanities. They ek to understand through deepening rather than cau-and-effect.
What we know as traditional science is really a recent paradigm from the age of modernity. What we need are not modernistic methods, but post-modern and non-Newtonian methods (Kvale, 1996) which has clearly laid-out steps (Giorgi, 1971; Wertz, ), which other rearchers can follow.
But the results would not be standardizable or generalizable in the n of traditional science. Qualitative rearch cannot generate the breadth of data that allow generalizability to larger samples, but it can generate a depth that follows in the investigative method of Freud. Henry Murray, director of the Psychological Clinical at Harvard and a humanistic psychologist, conducted clinical resarch by using the intensive study of individual subjects. Trained as a physician, he "…felt that the narrative form of ca study, which had been central to the growth of medical science, was also esntial for the development of psychology" (Polkinghorne, 1988, p. 103). Ca studies have been ud in humanistic psychology to study phenomena like loneliness (Moustakis, ), or dissociation (Moyer, ).
Humanistic psychology has developed a variety of rearch methodologies and practice models focud on facilitating the development and transformation of individuals, groups, and organizations. The methodologies include narrative, imaginal, and somatic approaches. The practices range from personal coaching and organizational consulting through creative arts therapies to philo(sophy)-cafes. As humanistic psychologists including Myron Arons, Thomas Greening, Ilene Serlin and David Elkins have pointed out, in s ome ways, the approaches and practices have a clor relation to the disciplines of the humanities (philosophy, history, arts and literature) than they have to the natural sciences.
The role of embodiment and experience in humanistic psychology
With the evidence showing a limited relationship between happiness and material attainment, the focus in positive psychology has centered on the mental and cognitive aspects of happiness (Seligman, 1991; Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). A strong movement within humanistic psychology, while acknowledging the Critical role of mental patterns, regards the interplay between the mind and the body to be of even greater significance.
More specifically, it examines somatic influences and the fundamental role played by states of the body in the ability to attainóand especially to sustain a positive frame of mind.
Humanistic psychology's exploration of the issue of embodiment(Zaner,1964) has its roots in the study of perception. Merleau-Ponty grounded perception in an "incarnated mind" (1963) and Polanyi in tacit knowing (1958). Today, even cognitive therapists are recognizing the importance of experiential learning to ground conceptual learning in the body, thus creating new experiential references and habits ((Safran et al, 1991; P arrot & Howes, 1991; Dobson & Craig, 1990) Beck, 1986). Changing core beliefs is directly related to the experience of the lf (Safran et al,1991) and change is stabilized when thoughts, affects, and behaviors are congruent (Dodge, 2000). Positive experiences have been shown to be fostered by developing a better vocabulary for positive affect (White & Epston, 1990), honing skills in empathy ( Tobin, 1999); and by bringing somatic awareness skills into the therapy process; (Borynko, 1987; Murphy, 1992). Happiness, as a state of subjective well-being, involves not only a positive way of thinking and acting, but is, at its core, a body-felt n of well-being, i.e., pleasure. The field of psychology, like the culture at large, is highly suspicious of pleasure, but pleasure is a much broader issue than mere mindless acquisitiveness. As Csikszentmihalyi points out, the boring or externally impod practice of positive psychological techniques is insufficient for achieving happiness. "You have to enjoy mental health to benefit from it" (1999, p. ??). Rearch in the multidisciplinary field of psychoneuroimmunology (PNI) shows a direct association between pleasurable experience and an enhanced immune respon (Pert and Snyder,
1973; Benson, 1975; Locke, 1982; Locke & Colligan, 1986; Ornstein & Sobel, 1989; Seeman, 1989). With happiness clearly connected to the ability to sustain good feelings, the body-bad phenomenolgy of that experience becomes a valuable resource for positive psychological study (Resnick, 1997).
Other humanistic psychotherapists included the body in their understanding of the mind and body in psychotherapy. Carl Rogers (1951) is most known for working with the theory and practice of congruence, and Sydney Jourard ( ) another humanistic psychologist, early articulated the need for what he called "transparency" or unity of inner and outer. Gestalt therapists u role-play and awareness techniques to bring inner experience and outer expression into congruence (Perls, 1992; Perls et al, 1951; Serlin & Shane, 1999). The importance of "authenticity" (Bugental, 1963; Laing, 1969; Sartre, 1964) is itlf a therapeutic goal. Congruence, as both an experiential and a conceptual state, can also help to assure the internal validity in qualitative rearch.
Finally, humanistic methodologies are dialogical, in which reality is created through relationship. Whether that relationship is between a therapist and a client, a rearcher and a subject, or any two or more persons and their world, their humanity is d eepened through the I-Thou relationship. The humanistic rearch method called "Dialogical Rearch" (Halling, ), for example, is structurally simil
ar to dialogical therapy (Friedman, 1985; Buber, 1958). Both are bad on teachings from outstanding theologians and
