1. terms
1) translation
Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. While interpreting—the facilitating of oral or sign-language communication between urs of different languages—antedates writing, translation began only after the appearance of written literature. There exist partial translations of the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh (ca. 2000 BCE) into Southwest Asian languages of the cond millennium BCE.
Translators always risk inappropriate spill-over of source-language idiom and usage into the target-language translation. On the other hand, spill-overs have imported uful source-language calques and loanwords that have enriched the target languages. Indeed, translators have helped substantially to shape the languages into which they have translated.二用英语怎么写
Owing to the demands of business documentation conquent to the Industrial Revolution that began in the mid-18th century, some translation specialties have become formalized, with dedicated schools and professional associations.
Becau of the laboriousness of translation, since the 1940s engineers have sought to 热狗做法automate translation or tomechanically aid the human translator.The ri of the Internet寻死觅活 has fostered a world-wide market for translation rvices and has facilitated language localization.
Translation studies systematically study the theory and practice of translation.
2) Translation methods
翻译方法是翻译活动中，基于某种翻译策略，为达到特定的翻译目的所采取的特定的途径、
步骤、手段。
Literal translation : means not to alter the original words and ntences, it strives to keep the ntiments and style of the original. It takes ntences as its basic units and takes the whole text into consideration at the same time in the ideological context and the style of the original works and retains as much as possible the figures :纸老虎 paper tiger word for word
Liberal translation: is an alternative approach which is ud mainly to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without trying to reproduce its ntence patterns or figure of speech. Eg；Adam’s apple 喉结 n for n
3) Translation strategies
翻译策略是翻译活动中，为实现特定的翻译目的所依据的原则和所采纳的方案集合。A plan or policy designed for a particular purpo.
异化：Foreignization 尽量不要打扰原作者，而是把读者带向原作者。Schleiermacher : “Leave the author in piece as much as possible, and move the reader toward him.”尽量保留原文的语言、文学、文化特质，保留异国风.
归化：Domestication 尽量不要打扰原作者，而是把作者带向读者。Schleiermacher : “Leave the author in piece as much as possible, and move the author toward reader.”具体表现为在翻译中，尽量用目的语读者喜闻乐见的语言、文学、文化要素来替换源语的语言、文学、文化要素，恪守、回归目的语的语言、文学和文化规范
4) equivalence
Ii was advocated by Jakobson. Through to the 1950s and 1960s, discussions in translation studies tended to concern how best to attain "equivalence". The term "equivalence" had two distinct meanings, corresponding to different schools of thought. In the Russian tradition, "equivalence" was usually a one-to-one correspondence between linguistic forms, or a pair of authorized technical terms or phras, such that "equivalence" was oppod to a range of "substitutions". However, in the French tradition of Vinay and Darbelnet, drawing on Bally, "equivalence" was the attainment of equal functional value, generally requiring changes in form. Catford's notion of equivalence in 1965 was as in the French tradition. In the cour of the 1970s, Russian theorists adopte
鱼籽怎么做才好吃d the wider n of "equivalence" as something resulting from linguistic transformations.
At about the same time, the Interpretive Theory of Translation introduced the notion of deverbalized n into translation studies, drawing a distinction between word correspondences and n equivalences, and showing the difference between dictionary definitions of words and phras (word correspondences) and the n of texts or fragments thereof in a given context (n equivalences).
The discussions of equivalence accompanied typologies of translation solutions (also called "procedures", "techniques" or "strategies"), as in Fedorov (1953) and Vinay and Darbelnet (1958). In 1958 Loh Dianyang's Translation: Its Principles and Techniques (英汉翻译理论与技巧) drew on Fedorov and English linguistics to prent a typology of translation solutions between Chine and English.
In the traditions, discussions of the ways to attain equivalence have mostly been prescriptive and have been related to translator training. 羊肉的功效与作用
成语大全四字成语
5) Translation studies蝴蝶园
Translation studies is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization. As an interdiscipline, Translation Studies borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation. The include comparative literature, computer science,history, linguistics, philology, philosophy, miotics and terminology.蛋挞液简单配方
The term translation studies was coined by the Amsterdam-bad American scholar James S. Holmes in his paper "The name and nature of translation studies", which is considered a foundational statement for the discipline. In English, writers occasionally u the term "translatology" (and less commonly "traductology") to refer to translation studies, and the corresponding French term for the discipline is usually traductologie (as in the Société Françai de Traductologie). In the United States there is a preference for the term Translation and Interpreting Studies (as in the American Translation and Interpreting Studies Association), although European tradition includes interpreting within translation studies (as in the European Society for Translation Studies).
