Intercultural study of euphemisms in Chine and English
JI Hai-long
(English Department, Chengxian College of Southeast University, Nanjing 210088, China)
Abstract: Language and culture are cloly related to each other. Euphemisms, which exist in all languages, reflect certain culture from which the language derives. Paying special attention to cross cultural communication, this paper discuss the relationship between euphemism and culture. Pointing out the necessity of learning and teaching euphemisms, the author also propos some suggestions on how to teach euphemism.
Key words: euphemism; English; Chine; culture; intercultural communication; teaching
1. Introduction
Ever since Hall published his masterpiece The silent language in 1957, the study of intercultural communication developed quickly. Language and culture are inparable from each other. As an inalienable part of language, euphemism bears the mark of culture. Failing to understand euphemisms may cau misunderstanding among people from different culture while appreciating euphemisms is vit
al to understanding the target language as well as its culture. The author discuss euphemisms in Chine and English and reflects on how Anglo-Saxon culture and Confucian culture produced diver euphemisms. Bad on his discussions, the author touches on the importance of teaching euphemisms and propos some suggestions on teaching euphemisms.
2. What is euphemism?
American scholar Rawson (1983, p. 1) states: “Euphemisms are embedded so deeply in our language that few of us, even tho who pride themlves on being plainspoken, ever get through a day without using them.” Euphemisms are pervasive in our society. It is esntial we know some basic meanings of the word “euphemism”. The word “euphemism” comes from ancient Greek. The prefix “eu” means well, easily; there are such words as “eulogize”, “eugenics”. The root “pheme” means speech or saying, and thus euphemism literally means to speak in a pleasant manner or with good words. A definition of euphemism given by Oxford advanced learners’ dictionary of current English (1989) is: “Example of the u of pleasant, mild or indirect words or phras in place of more accurate or direct one”. Generally speaking, words that are subtle, indirect or nice are euphemisms.
When expressing opinions, we do not want to provoke others. Therefore, we try to u mild and plea
sant words to replace unhappy, embarrassing or sad expressions. We not only try to be not too straightforward in conversations but also try to avoid taboo words. Distancing themlves from breaking social rules, people will u subtle words, roundabout way of saying to meet the communicatory needs, and the practice is called euphemizing. According to Neaman & Silver (1983, p. 1), “Euphemizing is generally defined as substituting an inoffensive or
JI Hai-long (1978- ), male, teaching assistant of English Department, Chengxian College of Southeast University; rearch field: applied linguistics.
54雷峰塔的传说
pleasant term for a more explicit, offensive one, thereby veneering the truth by using kind words.”
Though Allan and Burridge (1996) divide euphemism into euphemism, dysphemism and orthophemism (the third one is coined by them to refer to direct or neutral expressions), most people like to divide euphemisms into two categories. In his book, Rawson (1983) suggested that euphemisms can be divided into positive euphemisms and negative euphemisms. Positive euphemisms include occupational titles and personal honorifics. For example, the word professor may be ud to refer to a worker who does not engage in any academic activities at all. The so-calle
d negative euphemisms are cloly related to taboo words. Just as Adler (1978, p. 66) put it, “Euphemism and taboo are two sides of the same coin. Without taboo there is no euphemism”. If directly expresd, such concepts as illness, death, burial, x, nudity, urine, will leave the impression of crudeness, bluntness, harshness, or rudeness. Converly, if indirectly expresd, using euphemisms, the speaker can create the impression of elegance, subtlety, euphony, courteousness.
3. Euphemism and culture
Many people have defined the word“culture” for various purpos. Hall (1973, p. 20) defined culture from an anthropologist’s perspective “culture has long stood for the way of life for a people, for the sum of their learned behaviour patterns, attitudes, and material things”. According to O’Sullivan (1994), culture may be simply defined as “the ways people agree to be”; many scholars like to u the metaphor of iceberg to refer to culture. In a graph prented by Indiana department of education (2007), culture is believed to be like an ice-berg and “nine-tenths of the culture is below the surface”, a bit like Freud’s division of consciousness and subconsciousness. What are above the surface are food, dress, and visual arts and so on. And such items as nonverbal communication and notions of modesty are partially below a level. Such items as tone of voice and attitudes towards elders are c
ompletely below a level. Euphemisms can be easily tracked in our conversation and they reflect different levels of culture and various patterns of culture. To some extent, euphemism is a mirror of culture.
Becau of different cultures, the origins of euphemism in Chine and English are different. Religion was the subject of the earliest euphemism (Neaman & Silver, 1983). Exploring into influence religions have on euphemisms can help us understand Chine culture and western cultures better. Taoism, derived from the Taoist Chuang-Tzu, is China’s indigenous religion. Longevity is the ultimate goal that Taoism pursues. Therefore, “hua xian” (化仙, become immortal), “sheng tian” (升天, go to heaven), “xian shi” (仙逝, someone is not dead; instead , he becomes immortal), “hua he” (化鹤, become a crane; the bird is a symbol for longevity in China) are ud to refer to death. However, English euphemisms relating to religious taboos far outnumbered Chine euphemisms. English-speaking countries are Christian-dominated countries. People ranging from prime minister, president to grassroots, generally believe in God. Christianity has become the ethical standards for the whole society. Thus, Christianity definitely exercis great influence on euphemism. Death is a main taboo issue, which is cloly linked to religion. Many euphemisms in English concerning death come from Bible or other relevant Christian legends and allusions. Many of
the euphemisms reflect Christian philosophy and interpret death from religious perspectives. For example:“to return to dust”(becau God created man with earth); “to pay one’s debt to nature”(becau Christians believe that they must atone the sin); “to hand in one’s account”(Becau God is the lord, when one is dead he is reunited with god. Therefore, he should hand in his account). Up to now, “despite cularization”, Allan and Burridge asrt (2006，p. 127), “there are plenty of constrains of our gods and their红警联网
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acolytes”. More euphemisms will come about due to religious reasons.
It is also interesting to examine the aspect of class on the u of euphemisms. In China, the origins of euphemisms in the class difference are more vividly reflected in literature. With veral thousands of years of feudal history, China placed special emphasis on class distinction, which had a huge impact on Chine euphemisms. For instance, no one apart from Confucius himlf would u the title of “sheng” (圣, saint). Confucius’ name “sheng” was avoided by the entire Chine. Emperor’s first names were also avoided. For example, during the rein of Emperor LI Shi-min in the Tang Dynasty, both “shi”and “min” were bypasd. Hence scholars in the Tang Dynasty ud “dai” (代, gen
eration) to refer to “shi” (世, generation) and “ren” (人, people) to refer to “min” (民, people). The practice of abstaining from using one’s ancestors’ first names for onelf is called “to avoid ancestors’ first names”. One of LI Shi-min’s descendant, Emperor GAO Zong (LI Zhi) even issued a decree that “guan shi yin” (观世音, Avalokitesvara, goodness of mercy) should be replaced by “guan yin”(观音), which has since been adopted.
夸赞的反义词In Chine feudal society, people were fettered by the feudal shackle of superstitious and patriarchal ideas. Some words became taboo. When celebrating the Spring Festival, Chine should refrain from saying dia or death directly. Chine culture being dominated by male means that the male and female could not u the same registers of Chine. It is the shackles of feudal superstition and unequal status of men and women that promoted the formation of Chine euphemisms. In the past, a husband called his wife “jia nei” (家内, the one staying at home), “jia li de” (家里的, someone who only do chores) and “nei ren” (内人, houwife), which is certainly a manifestation of male superiority and female inferiority.
Differences in the u of euphemisms concerning age are obvious when comparing Chine and Western cultures. Chine respect the elderly so being elderly becomes a symbol of power and status. Someone could be “gu xi zhi nian” (古稀之年, “gu” means old, “xi” means rare, “zhi” only rv
es grammatical function and “nian” means age; in his venties), “lao shou xing” (老寿星, “lao” means old; some one enjoys longevity) and “lao ge ming” (老革命, forerunner revolutionist), “lao jiao shi’’ (老教师, experienced teacher). Chine u “old + academic title” or “surname + old” to address somebody, such as “lao jiao shou” (老教授, old professor), “Ba Lao” (巴老, Ba old). In contrast, Anglophones hate mentioning the word “old” so some vague expressions such as niority and the mature are ud in English. You may hear someone say “I’m a nior citizen and have just retired from work”. English native speakers will hesitate to say someone is “rugged”, so the word “distinguished” is often u to refer to someone with wrinkle on the face.
4. Euphemisms and cross cultural communication
Perhaps most of the English learners in China do not know that sometimes “girl” means “cocaine”in English (Neaman & Silver, 1983). Similarly, western learners of Chine may become confud when they hear some Chine say “ZHANG San aged last night” to mean “ZHANG San died last night”. Language learners will find that familiarizing themlves with some background knowledge is of great help to learn euphemisms. In turn, comparing the similarities and differences of euphemisms in the two languages will help us understand the two cultures better.
4.1 Shared means of constructing euphemisms in English and Chine
Despite the fact that there are striking differences in sound, shape and structure between English and Chine, 56
the two languages shared many means of constructing euphemisms. The psychological taboos in English and Chine particularly bear a lot of remblance. A lot of English euphemism can find their counterparts in Chine as they have similar meanings. Following are two common rhetorical devices. Firstly, vague words and expressions are employed to substitute explicit ones. Many taboo words have concrete meanings and they are too harsh. An effective way is to tactfully make them abstract or generalized. Some vague demonstrative words may be ud. Two typical pairs are this, that, and the, tho. The equivalents in Chine are “zhe” (这),“na” (那),“zheshi” (这事, this thing), “nashi” (那事, that thing). People tend to comply with the relevant principles to make specific adjustments in communication. For example, when dealing with the situation of the zipper of the pants undone, (this is very embarrassing on both parts of the interlocutors), and instead of saying “Your fly is open.” an American will say “You have lost your licen.” A Chine will say “the door is not clod.”, thus avoiding incurred embarrassment when it is mentioned directly; furthermore, this displays a n of humour.元宵节的花灯
分家协议书Secondly, understatement, which avoids obvious exaggerated emphasis on the rious situation, is
ud in both languages. English native speakers u the expression having “had a bit to drink” to substitute drunken. Chine say “duo he le ji bei” (多喝了几杯, he has just had a couple of cups more). Instead of saying “Jack is a stupid, English native speaker usually say Jack is a bit slow”. Chine teachers also u the similar expression:“This child’s potential has not yet been fully tapped”.
In order not to harm the feelings and dignity of others or cau unhappiness, English speakers name the blind as “sight deprived”. An “idiot” will be called (someone who is) “totally dependent”(on others). Instead of saying someone is ugly; Chine say somebody “looks mediocre”. Instead of pointing out directly that someone has put on weight, Chine will say that someone becomes “fa fu” (发福, enjoy happiness, luck or prosperity). When Chine ask others’ names, they will say “qing wen zun xing da ming”(请问尊姓大名, May I have you honorable surname and first name?). They u the words that are gentle or polite. When asking for help, Chine say “qing wen” (请问, may I ask), “lao jiao” (劳驾, excu me). There are counterparts in English, such as “it’s my pleasure to help you”. “I’m glad to meet you”. “Excu me, may I ask you a question?” “Can you do me a favour?” When criticizing others, westerners tend to deal with it subtly or with restraint. Finding that a person told a lie, instead of saying “he is a liar”, people may say “he has credibility gap”. Chine oft
en add some words such as may, a little, more, a little more, a little, less, and not enough to their statements to mitigate the riousness. For instance, “His marriage ceremony is a bit extravagant”. “You didn’t study hard enough”. Chine also like to transfer the topic. When asking “Is his English good”, you may hear the respon “He is very good in character”. Anglo-Saxons are more straightforward:They first asrt some merits, and then u “however” to point out shortcomings and mistakes. Such as “your report is O.K, but wouldn’t it be better that you pay more attention to details?”
4.2 English euphemisms assimilated into Chine culture
Due to communication between two cultures, some English euphemisms have been assimilated into Chine culture. It is well known that Westerners spare no effort to avoid figure 13. Nowadays, in China, you will find floor numbers in some cities going like this, 12, 12a, 12b, 15, and 16. Both 13 and 14 are replaced by combination of number and letter. Obviously the reason for the former is the influence of western culture; while the latter is related to Chine traditional culture or language. 14 is pronounced as “shi si” (十四) and death as “si” (死) in Chine. (The pronunciations of “shi”and “si” are similar)On the other hand, westerners t an example to u euphemisms unduly in economic and political field. Contemporary Chine followed suit. The cheapest class of
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air travel is called “economy class” in English. Chine learned to construct euphemisms in this way. The phenomenon of price going up is called “price adjustment” by some officials. Do not worry about that living cost will increa a lot becau the price of goods is still in control by government. To offer relief becomes “song went died”. To deliver warmness; warmness is a metaphor to refer to spiritual help as well as concrete help.
5. Implication for teaching
In language teaching, in order to help cond language learners to understand euphemisms, teachers should constantly cultivate students’ motivation to learn other cultures, which is decisive in language teaching. There are not enough instances of euphemisms in textbooks published in China. Teachers of English in China might as well give additional materials to students. They may also consciously u euphemisms themlves in class. In line with this, appropriate teaching theories and methods must be adopted. For example, teachers may let students watch an episode of film which has abundant euphemisms. If the content of the film has something to with the content in textbook, it will be of great help.
6. Conclusion
什么是交换机
Euphemism has many functions: it can be ud to maintain good relationships, to promote the normal verbal communication and so on. It is also a reflection of certain values. The u of euphemisms adds the lubricant to the exchange of information. However, due to social and cultural differences, the forms of euphemisms vary. Understanding euphemisms is conducive to intercultural communication. Therefore, attention must be paid to teaching Euphemisms. Suitable teaching theories and methods must be adopted.
References:
Adler, M. 1978. Naming and addressing: A sociolinguistic study. Hamburg Germany: Helmut Buske Verlag Hamburg.
Allian K. & Burridge. K. 1993. Forbidden words: Taboo and the censoring of language. New York: Cambridge University Press. Hall, E. T. 1973. The silent language. New York: Anchor Press
Hornby, A.S. 1989. Oxford advanced learners’ dictionary of current English. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
俄罗斯的Neaman. J & Silver. C. 1983. A dictionary of euphemisms. London: Hamsish Hamilton Limited.
O’Sullivan, K. 1994. Understanding ways: Communication between cultures. Sydney: Hale and Iremonger.
Rawson, H. 1983. A dictionary of euphemisms and other doubletalk. London: Macdonald & Co (Publishers) Ltd. Retrieved Sept. 24, 2007 from www.doe.state.in.us/lmmp.
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