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[edit] History
[edit] Origins
The question which of the contemporary world's universities are the oldest depends on how a university is defined. Some higher education institutions like the Nalanda University or University of Constantinople have their origins in late antiquity and thus claim to be the oldest universities. If a univeristy is defined as an "academic degree-granting higher education institution" then what is now the University of Al-Karaouine (established in 859)[2] and what is now Al-Azhar University (established in 975)[3] can claim to be the oldest universities since the University of Constantinople, which was refounded in the 9th century as a cular institute of higher learning to support the state administration, did not grant degrees, and neither did the many higher institutes of learning in pre-modern China. However, medieval specialists have defined the term university to mean a higher institution that is also a legally autonomous corporation, and by this definition universities are the unique creation of the West European High Middle Ages. By this definition, neither Early Medieval cathedral or monastic schools, nor Byzantine, Islamic, Chine or Indian institutions of higher learning were universities, since they lacked the corporate legal structure of the later Western European university.
Medieval specialists have coined the term "Islamic college" for institutions such as the medieval Al-Azhar madrasa, precily to clarify the point that, unlike the medieval European university, pre-modern Islamic colleges were not corporations.[4] Others have coined the term "Islamic university" to refer to the earlier Madrasahs which rembled later European universities.[5] Toby Huff summarizes the difference as follows: "From a structural and legal point of view, the madrasa and the university were contrasting types. Whereas the madrasa was a pious endowment under the law of religious and charitable foundations, the universities of Europe were legally autonomous corporate entities that had many legal rights and privileges. The included the capacity to make their own internal rules and regulations, the right to buy and ll property, to have legal reprentation in various forums, to make contracts, to sue and be sued."[6]
By this definition of a university, the first university in medieval Europe, and thus the world, was the University of Bologna (established in 1088). Some scholars such as S. F. Alatus[7] and George Makdisi have noted the influence of Madrasahs on early European
colleges and have thus argued that the first universities in Europe were influenced by the Madrasahs in Islamic Spain and the Emirate of Sicily at the time as well as tho in the Middle East.[8] Other scholars such as Toby Huff, however, have questioned this, highlighting the differences in the structure, methodologies, procedures, curricula and legal status of the "Islamic college" (madrasa衣服用英语怎么说) versus the European university.[9]
With the increasing growth and urbanization of European society during the 12th and 13th centuries, a demand grew for professional clergy. Before the 12th century, the intellectual life of Western Europe had been largely relegated to monasteries, which were mostly concerned with the performing the liturgy and prayer; relatively few monasteries could boast true intellectuals. Following the Gregorian Reform's emphasis on canon law and the study of the sacraments, bishops formed 不要再来伤害我歌词cathedral schools to train the clergy in Canon law, but also in the more cular aspects of religious administration, including logic and disputation for u in preaching and theological discussion, and accounting to more effectively control finances. Learning became esntial to advancing in the ecclesia
stical hierarchy, and teachers also gained prestige. However, demand quickly outstripped the capacity of cathedral schools, each of which was esntially run by one teacher. In addition, tensions ro between the students of cathedral schools and burghers in smaller towns. As a result cathedral schools migrated to large cities, like Paris and Bologna土林风景区>全国211大学名单.
The first universities in Europe (University of Bologna (1088), University of Oxford (1096), University of Paris (1150), University of Modena (1175), University of Palencia (1208), University of Cambridge (1209), University of Salamanca (1218), University of Montpellier (1220), University of Padua纸杯娃娃 (1222), University of Toulou (1229) and University of Orleans (1235)) began as private corporations of teachers and their pupils. Soon they realized they need protection against local city authorities. They petioned cular power for privileges and this became a model. Emperor Frederick I in Authentica Habita (1158) gave the first privileges to students in Bologna. Another step was when Pope Alexander III in 1179 "forbidding masters of the church schools to take fees for granting the licen to teach (licentia docendi), and obliging them to give licen to properly qualified teachers
".[10]
Teaching at Paris, in a late 14th-century 如何蒸花卷Grandes Chroniques de France: the tonsured students sit on the floor
[edit] Establishment
A predecessor of the modern university was in Paris, especially under the guidance of 电子基础知识Peter Abelard, who wrote Sic et Non ("Yes and No"), which collected texts for university study. Dissatisfied with tensions between burghers and students and the censorship of leading intellectuals by the Church, Abelard and others formed the Universitas, modelled on the mediaeval guild, lf-regulating, permanent institution of higher education. The University of Paris became one of the first clearly established universities, when Pope Gregory IX issued the bull Parens Scientiarium (1231).[10]
This was revolutionary step: studium generale (university) and universitas (corporation of students or teachers) existed even before, but now it got autonomy. "[T]he papal bull of 1
233, which stipulated that anyone admitted to be a teacher in Toulou had the right to teach everywhere without further examinations (ius ubique docendi), in time, transformed this privilege into the single most important defining characteristic of the university and made it the symbol of its institutional autonomy . . . By the year 1292, even the two oldest universities, Bologna and Paris, felt the need to ek similar bulls from Pope Nicholas IV."[10]
By the 13th century, almost half of the highest offices in the Church were occupied by degreed masters (abbots, archbishops, cardinals), and over one-third of the cond-highest offices were occupied by masters. In addition, some of the greatest theologians of the High Middle Ages, Thomas Aquinas and Robert Grosteste, were products of the medieval university.
The development of the medieval university coincided with the widespread reintroduction of Aristotle from Byzantine and Arab scholars. In fact, the European university put Aristotelian and other natural scientce texts at the century of its curriculum,[11] with the re
sult that the "medieval university laid far greater emphasis on science than does its modern counterpart and decendent." [12]
Although has been assumed that the universities went into decline during the Renaissance becau the scholastic and Aristotelian emphasis of its curriculum was less popular than the cultural studies of Renaissance humanism, Toby Huff has noted the continued importance of the European universities, with their focus on Aristotle and other scientific and philosophical texts, into the early modern period, arguing that they played a crucial role in the Scientific Revolution of the sixteenth and venteenth centuries. As he puts it "Copernicus, Galileo, Tycho Brahe, Kepler, and Newton were all extraordinary products of the apparently procrustean and allegedly Scholastic universities sociological and historical accounts of the role of the university as an institutional locus for science and as an incubator of scientific thought and arguments have been vastly understated." [13]
