现代屏风Subjective Well-Being in School Environments:Promoting Positive Youth Development Through Evidence-Bad Asssment and Intervention
Jason M.Bird and Robert S.Markle
合同能源管理
University of South Carolina
Rearch on subjective well-being indicates that it is associated with academic success and positive school functioning.Despite a wealth of empirical rearch demonstrating the ben-efits of interventions aimed at increasing middle and high school students’well-being,few educational institutions have adopted evidence-bad curricula that address this construct as a means of promoting future academic and social achievement.In addition,numerous studies have begun to identify veral factors that contribute to well-being and thus have helped children and adolescents to be successful in both academic and social domains.The critical factors include personal goal tting,structured mentoring or life coaching,increasing gratitude,problem solving,and interpersonal skills.The prent article provides a broad discussion of relevant rearch findings on the factors and advocates for the adoption of curricula that incorporate the components in order to ensure that best prac-tices are utilized in the school environment and for positive youth development.Lastly,
a theoretical proposal for empirically bad asssment and interventions that encompass key components associated with incread child and adolescent well-being is provided.
T
he field of positive psychology has had a tremendous influence on the way in which psychologists conceptualize human functioning.Over the last 50years,psychologists and rearch practitioners have focud primarily on negative outcomes of mental health such as psychopathology and behav-ioral deficits (Suldo,Huebner,Savage,&Thalji,2010).The field’s incread emphasis on studying positive psychological traits rather than functional deficits truly embraces the goal of enhancing human satisfaction above baline and rves to pro-mote human thriving in all areas of life.One particular way in which positive psychology has the potential to make a profound impact is by changing school environments.
Positive School Functioning
Recently,there has been a large increa in the number of studies examining specific factors that contribute to positive school functioning (Froh,Sefick,&Emmons,2008;Suldo et al.,2009;Vera et al.,2008).In particular,subjective well-being (SWB)has been a factor that consistently predicts positiv
e school outcomes (Suldo &Shaffer,2008).As a construct,SWB is centered around three predictive factors:one’s degree of life satisfaction (LS;in both global and specific domains)and both positive and negative emotions or affect (Diener,Scollon,&
Lucas,2004;Ryff,1989;Ryff &Keyes,1995).Through previous rearch,the components have been demonstrated to contrib-ute to success among elementary,middle,and high school students (Suldo et al.,2010).However,the fact remains that few schools target the factors in their regular school curriculum or after-school programs.The purpo of this article is to review the esntial components of SWB and also to outline a frame-work for schools and educational institutions to incorporate the elements into their regular and after-school curricula.We are proposing that the programs should target areas such as goal tting,problem-solving skills,structured mentoring,inter-personal skills,and promotion of gratitude.Finally,we provide a design for an after-school program with specific activities that address the factors.
Dual-Factor Model of Mental Health
Recent studies have begun to explore the validity and utility of a dual-factor model for evaluating mental health that incorpo-rates both psychopathology and SWB.The dual-factor model propos th
at evaluations of mental health should not only be compod of the negative component of psychopathology,but also incorporate the positive component of SWB (Diener et al.,2004).When measuring both psychopathology and SWB in young children,Greenspoon and Saklofske (2001)were able to determine four distinct groups of elementary school children that supported the dual-factor model.Results of the study confirmed four specific groups of mental health:(a)Low SWB ⁄Low psy-chopathology,(b)High SWB ⁄Low psychopathology,(c)Low
Correspondence concerning this article should be addresd to Jason M.Bird,Department of Psychology,University of South Carolina,1512Pendleton Street,Columbia,SC 29208.Electronic mail may be nt to
American Journal of Orthopsychiatry Ó2012American Orthopsychiatric Association
2012,Vol.82,No.1,61–66DOI:10.1111/j.1939-0025.2011.01127.x
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SWB⁄High psychopathology,and(d)High SWB⁄High psycho-pathology.In light of thefindings,positive psychologists have advocated for the integrated measurement of both positive well-being and negati
ve psychopathology in school-bad mental health asssment and intervention.This type of approach pro-vides a more comprehensive picture of a student’s needs and can identify more specifically the type and level of intervention that is best suited for that particular student.For example,if a stu-dent is low on psychopathology but also low on SWB,this infor-mation can inform school professionals that the student needs an intervention that targets SWB,while preventing the unneces-sary u of resources focud on psychopathology.
As described by Ryff(1989),there are multiple components of well-being that rve to improve one’s level of functioning.In general,individuals who have a high degree of SWB are able to perform in a way so as to maximize their full potential.As evi-denced in the following paragraph,SWB shares a number of commonalities with Maslow’s theoretical concept of lf-actual-ization,and many of the characteristics that contribute to SWB are also components of lf-actualization.Thus,fostering the development of SWB in schools has the potential to enhance students’functioning not only in the area of academics,but also in other important aspects of life,such as personal relationships, contributing to success and fulfillment throughout the lifespan. Empirical Rearch on Psychological and SWB
To date,veral studies have attempted to identify the com-ponents that enhance positive psychologi
cal functioning and well-being(Froh,Yurkewicz,&Kashdan,2009;Ryff,1989; Ryff&Keyes,1995).Ryff(1989)initially propod a6-factor model of well-being that includes the dimensions of lf-accep-tance,positive relations with others,personal autonomy,envi-ronmental mastery,purpo in life,and personal growth.Self-acceptance includes holding positive attitudes toward onelf and is a central component of mental health,lf-actualization, and optimal functioning.The ability to hold positive relations with others refers to the degree to which one experiences warm, trusting interpersonal relationships.Individuals who have strong positive relations with others posss strong feelings of empathy for all human beings and are capable of greater love,deeper friendship,and more complete identification with others’experi-ences.The relational characteristics have been propod as a criterion of maturity and are implicated in many adult develop-mental stage theories.The notion of autonomy encompass characteristics such as lf-determination,independence,and the regulation of behaviors from within.Individuals who are fully autonomous posss an internal locus of evaluation,in which they asss themlves by their own personal standards rather than looking to others for approval.Environmental mastery concerns the degree to which individuals are able to create and control complex environments so as to maximize their function-ing.Individuals with a high degree of environmental mastery are able to make progress in the world and to change it with mental or physical abilities.Another aspect of this component that
marks successful development is the ability to take advan-tage of environmental opportunities so as to maximize one’s potential.Thefifth component,purpo in life,requires that individuals subscribe to beliefs that provide them with the feeling that there is meaning and purpo in their future.Tho with a strong n of purpo in life are able to achieve a n of directedness and intentionality.Having goals,intentions,and a n of direction all contribute to the feeling that life is mean-ingful and thus rve to increa positive functioning.Finally, personal growth refers to the ability to develop one’s potential, to expand,and to grow as a person.Self-actualizing individuals believe that they are perpetually developing and improving, rather than striving to achieve an end state in which all of their problems are solved.Thus,individuals with a high degree of SWB have a greater chance of becoming lf-actualized.
Target Areas for Improving Psychological
郑姆斯特丹and SWB
Personal Goal Setting洒水壶图片
A large body of rearch illustrates that tting life goals and making progress toward the goals rve to increa well-being (Green,Oades,&Grant,2006;Sheldon,Kasr,Smith,& Share,2002).As n
oted by Sheldon et al.(2002),goal tting is indicative of an individual’s striving to promote change,to lf-improve,and to achieve meaning and purpo in life.As a result,making progress toward and achieving one’s goals can enhance well-being.Further,as Green et al.(2006)note,goal tting within a mentor or life coaching framework can enhance progress toward goals and well-being.While pursuing goals at the requests of others can be an effective strategy for accom-plishing necessary tasks,it is crucial to note the importance of personal goal tting,which involves goals that are freely chon by the individual and that reprent important personal interests and values(Sheldon&Elliot,1998;Spence&Grant,2007). Sheldon and Elliot(1998)demonstrated that individuals who t and pursued their own goals becau of their intrinsic interest in attaining them had higher levels of lf-regulation and well-being than individuals who pursued goals becau of external pressures or rewards.Thus,it is important that individuals freely choo their goals,if they desire to achieve a high level of well-being.Overall,thefindings suggest that simply tting and pursuing goals is not sufficient for obtaining well-being. Instead,individuals must freely choo their goals,so that they have a n of ownership over the goal and feel that they truly want to pursue it of their own accord.Bad on goal-tting rearch,school curricula should incorporate personal goal t-ting as a regular practice and should ensure that students are able to choo realistic,but meaningful,goals that they will be motivated to pursue throughout their academic and professional careers.
Structured Mentoring and Life Coaching Rearch on mentoring and life coaching has received increas-ing attention in the past decade,although most work in this area is still in its infancy(Grant,2003;Green et al.,2006; Spence&Grant,2007).Given that goal tting related to per-sonal interests and values has been demonstrated to increa well-being,veral studies have evaluated the effectiveness of life coaching centered around goal tting and problem solving (Grant,2003).Grant(2003)studied20graduate students who
月子能吃什么水果
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attended a workshop,t personal goals,and attended veral peer group coaching ssions that were conducted by a life coach who provided training in solution-focud coping tech-niques.Students who participated in the program achieved more of their goals and exhibited greater mental health(lower stress, depression,and anxiety;higher positive emotions and well-being)than students who did not participate.A follow-up study by Green et al.(2006)demonstrated that adults who received life coaching over a10-week period showed incread goal striv-ing,LS,and positive affect(of which the latter two are compo-nents of SWB),compared with individuals who did not receive life coaching.Participants also displayed increas in psycholog-ical well-being,including environmental mastery,positive rela-tions with others,greater purpo in life,and lf-acceptance, co
mpared with the control group,who members did not demonstrate any changes in the areas.Moreover,participants maintained the changes over time,as demonstrated by incread goal striving,positive affect,environmental mastery, positive relations with others,purpo in life,and lf-accep-tance at40weeks after the termination of the intervention. Rearch indicates that the success of life coaching also depends on characteristics of the coach.Spence and Grant (2007)found that coaches who were trained in behavior change and who possd necessary skills for building rapport with their prote ge s were more effective than peer coaches in eliciting goal commitment and in facilitating prote ge s’progress toward their goals.In contrast,students who were assigned peer coa-ches attended fewer coaching ssions,showed weaker goal commitment,and did not differ significantly from the control group in terms of goal progression.Thus,it appears that peer coaching is not sufficient to increa students’progress toward their goals and that engagement with a coach who is trained in cognitive-behavioral,solution-focud coping techniques is an important element in efforts to increa well-being.Perhaps, peer coaches have less motivation to e their prote ge s succeed. They may also have less credibility,as perceived by their prot-e ge s.Bad on the results,an ideal curriculum would provide students with mentors or life coaches who have received sub-stantial training in cognitive-behavioral,solution-focud coping techniques and who employ a manualized coaching strategy. Interpersonal Relationships
Rearch indicates that clo interpersonal relationships are important for maintaining well-being(Diener,Gohm,Suh,& Oishi,2000;Hotard,McFatter,McWhirter,&Stegall,1989). Campbell(1976)found that family and friendship relationships play an important role in how people evaluate their lives overall, regardless of people’s income,education,or other indicators of socioeconomic status.Hotard et al.(1989)examined social rela-tions and SWB and discovered that relationships with acquain-tances,friends,and significant others significantly predicted SWB.Furthermore,they found that the relationships were affected by the participants’level of extraversion,such that highly extraverted individuals tend to have high levels of SWB regardless of the number of social relationships they have, whereas,for introverted individuals,SWB increas with the number of social relationships.Thefindings suggest that interpersonal relationships are important for SWB,but especially among introverted individuals.School curricula should offer more instruction in interpersonal skills so that tho students who may be more introverted can develop strong relationships and,in turn,increa their well-being.
Although the establishment of strong social support networks with family,friends,and neighbors is a strong predictor of well-being for all individuals,this is especially true for minority stu-dents(Taylor,Chatters,Hardison,&Riley,2001).Taylor et al. (2001)found that perceived family clones
s,family support, number of friends,and frequency of contact with neighbors were significantly associated with SWB in a national sample of African Americans.In addition,positive relationships with par-ents have been demonstrated to predict SWB later in life (Barnett,Kibria,Baruch,&Pleck,1991).Thus,school curricula should take efforts to increa parent involvement in their chil-dren’s lives,both in and out of school.Parent involvement tends to be lower for minority students,possibly owing to the fact that minorities may work longer hours or may be single parents. We advocate for greater school involvement in reaching out to parents by increasing daily communication concerning their children’s progress and holding community parent nights throughout the school year with training ssions on how to increa academic performance as well as foster lf-efficacy and SWB.This type of school involvement has the potential to enhance well-being,prevent mental health issues,and promote positive functioning for students,teachers,and parents alike. Promotion of Gratitude
The ability for students to form strong positive relationships with others greatly depends on the degree to which their envi-ronments—both in school and elwhere—promote positive interpersonal interactions,foster trusting relationships,and encourage prosocial behaviors toward others.One important aspect of the‘‘positive relationships with others’’component of SWB is the moral emotion of
gratitude(Emmons&McCul-lough,2003;Froh et al.,2009;McCullough,Kilpatrick, Emmons,&Larson,2001).According to Emmons and McCul-lough(2003),gratitude is an emotion that results from realizing that one has obtained a positive outcome and that this outcome can be attributed to an external source.Feelings of gratitude ari when individuals realize that a benefactor has expended effort to help them.Becau one must have the ability to under-stand the experience of another person(or other external source)who has sacrificed something to help them,gratitude is considered to be an empathic emotion.In line with Fredrick-son’s(2001)broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions,the expression of gratitude can help individuals build resources that promote well-being.In esnce,having a grateful attitude helps individuals to consider the role of others in increasing their wel-fare,thus augmenting hope and optimism for a benevolent soci-ety in which people are committed to helping rather than detracting from each others’personal goals(Froh et al.,2009). Recent work by Froh et al.(2008)evaluated the effects of counting blessings on adolescents’gratitude and SWB.Methods for the study involved randomly assigning11classrooms of mid-dle school students to one of three ,gratitude writing,hassles writing,or the control group).Over2weeks, four classrooms of students were assigned to the gratitude
SUBJECTIVE WELL-BEING AND POSITIVE YOUTH DEVELOPMENT63
condition and asked to consider events of the past day and then list up tofive things they were most grateful(thankful)for in their lives.In the hassles condition,another four classrooms were asked to think about things that annoyed them over the past day and write up tofive or more hassles they had experi-enced.Students in the last three classrooms were assigned to the no-treatment control group.The investigators of the study found that students who participated in the gratitude condition reported significantly less negative affect in addition to greater satisfaction within important domains of life.Their most signifi-cantfinding was the increa in satisfaction with school even when measured at postintervention and3-week follow-up.As previous rearch has explicated,school satisfaction rves as a critical outcome relative to optimal wellness in children and adolescents(Suldo et al.,2010).
秋天干燥In addition to its effects on SWB,rearch has indicated that gratitude improves the propensity for prosocial behavior(Bart-lett&DeSteno,2006).Bartlett and DeSteno(2006)demon-strated that individuals who received a favor from a confederate were significantly more likely to help the confederate with another task.To ensure that helping behavior was directly related to gratitude and not simply the result of feeling obli-gated to reciprocate,the authors performed a mediational anal-ysis comparing participants in the gratitude condition with a control condition,the results of which indi
cated that only grati-tude was a reliable predictor of helping behavior.The results support the work of Froh et al.(2008),which suggests that a grateful attitude enhances one’s ability to consider others’wel-fare and increas hope for a benevolent society where the norm is helping others,even when such efforts may be inconvenient for the benefactor.As prosocial connectedness is one of thefive core competencies for SWB(Guerra&Bradshaw,2008),such information suggests that interventions targeted at increasing students’gratitude can lead to the enhancement of LS.Further, the results suggest that prosocial behaviors may mediate the relationship between gratitude and SWB.Therefore,increasing students’gratitude may lead to greater prosocial behavior, thereby enhancing well-being.
Benefits of Structured Extracurricular Activities Previous studies have also indicated that youth involved in structured extracurricular activities have shown higher LS and social interests than tho who are alone at home after school or with friends without adult supervision(Gilman,2001).After-school programs and rvice learning initiatives have the ability to assist youth in developing motivation for school-and career-related goals.The most effective interventions for youth have provided hands-on opportunities for students to develop per-sonal goals and learn about applying the goals in career and social ttings.The types of interventions can enhance students’problem solving and related coping skills while also addressing potential barriers to achieving personal goals.
For example,Marques,Pais-Ribeiro,and Lopez(2007)cre-ated Building Hope for the Future,focud on the development and sustainability of prospective goals for middle school stu-dents while incorporating a cognitive-behavioral,solution-focud therapeutic relationship with youth participants. Rearch methodology was bad on Lopez,Floyd,Ulven,and Snyder’s(2000)earlier program,Making Hope Happen,an intervention designed to increa hope in adults by helping them to t and achieve their personal goals.To improve outcomes in the adolescent study,parents and teachers also received inter-vention manuals and a1-hr training ssion prior to the begin-ning of the program.Students in the treatment group who completed the5-week intervention reported significantly higher LS,hope,and feelings of ,Lopez et al.,2000;as cited in Suldo et al.,2010).
The results of the empirical studies indicate that interven-tions aimed at increasing students’gratitude,LS,and belief in their ability to attain goals,combined with guidance from adult educators,can lead to positive outcomes for children and ado-lescents.Positive relationships with older adults,whether teach-ers or college-aged mentors,can assist students in the successful pursuit of goals through teaching them to generate clear goals, refine them when necessary,and monitor goal attainment over time.The rearchfindings provide support that positive youth development in
terventions focud on goal tting can lead to higher SWB through development.The following ction provides ideas for interventions that promote the major domains of well-being and can easily be incorporated into middle and high school or after-school program curricula.
Proposal for Interventions to Increa
Students’SWB
Although we acknowledge that the current article is theoreti-cal in nature,our suggestions for a potential curriculum to improve SWB in children and adolescents are bad on empiri-cal rearch indicating that the activities target the necessary components of SWB.Our propod curriculum includes build-ing executive and problem-solving skills,group discussions around professional goals and standards,mentoring from trained students centered around goal tting,and creating plans of action,positive thinking,and gratitude journaling. Personal Homework and Study Time and Executive Skills Building
This activity involves placing students together in cohorts of five to eight students bad upon common areas of academic difficulty as revealed by theirfirst mester classroom grades, state standardized test scores,and IQ test results.Teachers and mentors can be assigned to assist acade
mic subject groups depending on their specific areas of experti.College students assigned as mentors can lead exercis in the treatment group to improve students’academic decision-making,time management, and organization skills.Students are given organization check-lists to help arrange and systematize items in their book bags, binders,and school lockers.Additionally,the mentor-directed exercis involve assistance to students in managing weekly schedules along with instructing students on effective planning strategies to balance school and personal time commitments.On their weekly agendas or schedules,students include homework assignments,study time for upcoming academic requirements (i.e.,major exams,tests,and quizzes),and personal obligations they have outside of the regular school ,extracurricular clubs,social organizations,community-bad sports,and family
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nao开头的成语activities).For every school assignment and personal event,stu-dents provide the total estimated time it will take to complete the academic or socially related task.
As an integral part of the program,students are instructed to choo a major ,test,daily quiz,or class project) in each of the subjects they are currently taking and t
o estimate the expected grade value that they anticipate receiving on the lected assignments.To monitor progress over time,students can then develop a list of weekly assignments with their esti-mated grades included,one for each subject that they are taking. During the following week’s program,students can report their actual grade values for the major assignments that they cho. Actual grade values can be checked for accuracy using online grade databas and teacher and parent reports.Students record their expected versus actual grade values over the cour of the program to document their progress toward achieving their pro-jected academic goals.
Group Discussions and Journaling on Professional Goals and Standards
As part of the curriculum,teachers can engage students in formal group discussions and debates on how to act profession-ally while in the classroom and within career ,job interviews and business meetings).Teachers and mentors can demonstrate proper etiquette and prepare students for applying to high school clubs and future leadership positions as well as college and career interviews.The group-bad discussions should address topics such as using character strengths to achieve success in school,the importance of executive skills in helping to enhance one’s daily functioning,and how to over-come obstacles to accomplish academic and professional goals. After each group discussion,it may be beneficial to have stu-dents write in a journal about what they learn
ed and how they will u the information to benefit themlves in the future.For each discussion,students can be asked to provide written respons to questions such as‘‘What did you learn from today’s group discussions?’’and‘‘How will you u this infor-mation to improve your academic career or social life?’’It may be uful to have teachers and mentors guide students through the process by providing them advice and suggestions concern-ing their particular written respons.
求偶遇
Problem-Solving Scenarios Focud on Enhancing Students’School-and Career-Related Interpersonal Skills
To address problem-solving skills,teachers can have students engage in a ries of career-and school-related problem (dilemma)scenarios.Using frameworks such as the6Steps of Problem Solving(Cottrell&Einberg,2001),small student-lected groups can collaborate to resolve everyday conflicts that they may encounter while in high school,college,and career environments.While in their small groups,students will collec-tively discuss each step and briefly write as a group how they ud the6Steps of Problem Solving to arrive at their solution. It is often uful to center problem-solving scenarios around academic and social issues that students may encounter in the near future such as cyber bullying,handling school gossip and rumors,and obrving another student cheating.Teache
rs and mentors should provide constructive feedback for their group’s written respons.The problem-solving scenarios should be collected throughout the school year and placed within students’program folders for future reference while in high school, college,and beyond.
Weekly Structured Mentoring From College Students Trained In Goal Setting
During weekly mentoring ssions,student participants can meet with assigned college or adult mentors to t academic goals and establish plans of action to complete tho goals over the cour of the school year and their academic careers.Men-tors should receive training on goal tting and progress-monitoring procedures prior to meeting with their prote ge´. Then,mentors can u step-by-step protocols in the form of task-orientedfidelity checklists for each weekly ssion with their assigned student prote ge´.During the ssions,mentors should remember to assist their student mentee(s)with tting challenging and specific goals for the current academic mester and future career interests.
A uful procedure is to incorporate a comprehensive evalua-tion of each student’s individual capacity to generate,manage, and work toward attaining personally lected , related to academic and professional development)to achieve over the school year.During each mentoring s
sion,students can choo one short-term goal to work toward achieving over the next week.On the goal-tting protocol,students should list their individual goals and up tofive ,plans of action)that they anticipate using that week to accomplish their lf-t goal.During the next week,students can rate their pro-gress toward that goal using goal-attainment scaling.For exam-ple,students may rate themlves on the three following characteristics of chon goals on a Likert-type scale:specificity, difficulty(challenging),and personal commitment.
Positive Thinking and Gratitude or Hassles Journaling
To address the gratitude component of well-being,students can be instructed to list up tofive or more things that they felt most grateful(or thankful)for in the past week.Students can be prompted with the following directions:‘‘Think about the expe-riences you’ve had over the past week of your life.After you have reflected,write up tofive or more things in your life that you are most grateful(or thankful)for.The positive things you list could include aspects of your family,friendships,per-sonal health,community,church,and school life.’’In weekly meetings with their mentors,students can be asked to share their written reflections of gratitude and positive experiences. Students should also be encouraged to compo brief letters of gratitude to people who have affected their lives in a positive way and nd them to the individuals.
In sum,rearch indicates that the enhancement of SWB in middle and high school students is a promising endeavor.How-ever,few schools incorporate the elements into their curricula. We advocate for an increa in the awareness of well-being and its validated components,as well as activities that foster
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