第8章对比分析、中介语和错误分析
8.1 复习笔记
本章要点简易画画
学习群头像1. The Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis 对比分析假说
2. Error Analysis 错误分析
本章考点
1. 对比分析假说的定义和四个步骤；
2. 难度等级的六个层级特点；
韩国烤肉3. 对比分析理论的强势说和弱势说；
4. 错误分析理论、失误与错误的区分、错误来源及如何对待和纠正。
本章内容索引
Ⅰ. The Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis（CAH）
1. Definition
2. Four different procedures
Ⅱ. Hierarchy of Difficulty
1. Definition
2. Different levels
3. Shortcomings
Ⅲ. Moderating the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis
1. Strong version of the CAH
2. Weak version of the CAH
3. Moderate version of the CAH
Ⅳ. Markedness and Universal Grammar
1. Markedness Differential Hypothesis
2. Universal grammar (UG)
3. Interlanguage
Ⅴ. Error Analysis
1. Definition
2. Mistakes and Errors
3. Errors in Error Analysis
4. Identifying and Describing Errors
5. Stages of Interlanguage Development
6. Sources of Error
Ⅵ. Communication Strategies
Ⅶ. In the Classroom: Error Correction
1. Error correction
2. Error treatment
Ⅰ. The Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis（CAH）（对比分析假说）
1. Definition（定义）
The CAH claimed that the principal barrier to cond language acquisition is the interference of the first language system with the cond language system, and that a scientific, structural analysis of th
e two languages in question would yield a taxonomy of linguistic contrasts between them which in turn would enable the linguist to predict the difficulties a learner would encounter.
对比分析假说认为第二语言习得的根本障碍是第一语言对第二语言存在着干扰，因此，对两种语言从结构上进行科学的对比分析可以帮助语言学家利用语言之间的差异性预测学习者在第二语言学习过程中可能遇到的困难。
2. Four different procedures (Randal Whitman)（四个步骤）
The first of the is description: the linguist or language teacher, using the tools of formal grammar, explicitly describes the two languages in question.
第一个步骤是描述：语言学家或语言教师以正式的语法为工具对两种语言进行准确描述。
Second, a lection is made of certain forms-linguistic items, rules, structures-for contrast, since it is virtually impossible to contrast every possible fact of two languages.
第二个步骤是选择：将一定的语法形式，如语言词项，语法规则和语法结构进行对比，而将两种语言中的每一个细节进行对比是不可能的。
The third procedure is the contrast itlf, the mapping of one linguistic system onto the other, and a specification of the relationship of one system to the other which, like lection, “rests on the validity of one’s reference points”.
第三个步骤是对比：对比两种语言的语言系统及其关系，这和第二步的选择一样，“效度因人而异”。
Finally, one formulates a prediction of error or of difficulty on the basis of the first three procedures. That prediction can be arrived at through the formulation of a hierarchy of difficulty or through more subjective applications of psychological and linguistic theory.
最后一个步骤是预测：在前三个步骤的基础上预测错误和困难。这种预测可以依靠错误等级或者依靠心理学和语言学理论的主观应用。
Ⅱ. Hierarchy of Difficulty（难度等级）
1. Definition（定义）
Stockwell, Bowen, and Martin propod what they called a hierarchy of difficulty by which a teacher or linguist could make a prediction of the relative difficulty of a given aspect of the cond language.
斯道克威尔等人认为难度等级是指教师或语言学家对第二语言的某一方面相对难度进行预测的参考。
2. Different levels（不同等级）
①Stockwell and his associates suggested eight possible degrees of difficulty bad upon the notions of transfer (positive, negative, and zero) and of optional and obligatory choices of certain phonemes in the two languages in contrast.
斯道克威尔等人依据迁移（正迁移、负迁移、零迁移）的概念以及两种进行对比语言中
小儿歌曲特定音素的可选性和强制性把难度定为八个可能级别。
②Clifford Prater captured the esnce of this grammatical hierarchy in six categories of difficulty.无照经营
克利福德把语法等级难度分为六个级别。
Level 0—Transfer（0级——迁移）
No difference or contrast is prent between the two languages. The learner can simply transfer (positively) a sound, structure, or lexical item from the native language to the target language. Such transfer is posited to be of no difficulty, hence the label of “level zero.” Examples can be found in certain ph onemes and their distribution in English and Spanish (cardinal vowels, /s/, /z/, /m/, /n/).
两种语言不存在差异或对比。学习者只是按照母语发音方式向目标语发音方式在结构和词汇上发生正迁移。这种学习没有困难，因此叫做“0级”。比如英语和西班牙语的某些音素相同，如基本元音和/s/、/z/、/m/、/n/。
Level 1—Coalescence（1级——合并）
Two items in the native language become coalesced into esntially one item in the target language. For example, English third-person posssives require gender distinction (his/her), but in Spanish just “su”.
母语中的两项合并成目标语中的一项。如英语中第三人称所有格形式有his和her性别之分，而西班牙语则都是“su”。
Level 2—Underdifferentiation（2级——缺失）
An item in the native language is abnt in the target language. The learner must avoid that item. A number of phonemes that are prent in English are abnt
in Spanish: veral vowels (/I/, /ǽ/, among others), and consonants like the interdental fricatives (/th/) and velar nasal (/ng/).
一些词类存在于母语而非目标语中。学习者要避免使用这些词类。如/I/和/ǽ/等元音以及齿间摩擦音/th/和软腭鼻音/ng/等辅音，它们只存在于英语而非西班牙语中。
Level 3—Reinterpretation（3级——重释）
An item that exists in the native language is given a new shape or distribution. The English speaker who learns French, for example, must learn a new distribution for nasalized vowels.
母语中存在的一些词类在目标语中以新的形式出现。比如说英语的人要学法语必须先掌握鼻音化的元音。
中秋的诗
Level 4—Overdifferentiation（4级——差异）
A new item entirely, bearing little if any similarity to the native language item, must be learned. For example, English speaker have difficulties learning Chine tones.
目标语中的一些词类与母语完全不同。比如说英语的人学汉语的声调就有些困难。
Level 5—Split（5级——分裂）
去新加坡读研One item in the native language becomes two or more in the target language, requiring the learner to make a new distinction. The split is the counterpart of coalescence. For example, an English word may have veral meanings in Chine, and learners must decide which one is optimal under the certain circumstances.广播电台英语
母语中的一个词可能在目标语中有多个意思，这就要求学习者学会区分。比如visit这个词，在汉语中意思可以是参观、访问、看望等意义，学习者必须根据语境来判断它的具体
