空词项
词项（概念）的种类
一、单独词项（概念）、普遍词项（概念）和空词项（概念）
一个词项是单独词项（概念）还是普遍词项（概念），是根据它的外延数量确定的。
单独词项（概念）是反映只有一个分子对象的词项，其外延所反映的是独一无二的事物。单独词项通常用专有名词或摹状词表达，例如：“大连” “长城”、“雷锋”、“鲁迅”等就是单独词项（概念）。某些普遍词项（概念）的前面冠以表示单称的代词或指示代词，也可用于表达单独词项（概念），如“这位律师”、“那位法官”等。
普遍词项（概念）是反映具有两个或两个以上分子对象的词项，它的外延所反映的是两个或两个以上分子对象组成的类。其外延至少是两个，可以无限多。例如“律师”这个概念，它的外延就是一个一个具体的从事法律服务工作的人。语词中的普通名词、动词、形容词等一般都表达普遍词项（概念）。
空词项（概念）是外延为零的词项（概念）。一些词项是无所指称的，它们的外延集是空集，这样的词项称为空词项。如：“鬼”、“凤凰”、“龙”等就是空词项。又例如命题“1和2之间的自然数小于3”中的词项“1下午茶时间和2之间的自然数”就是一个空词项。再如“永动机”、“燃素”、“圆的正方形”等等。但在确定一个词项是否空词项时，必须考虑它出现的环境。如，《红楼梦》中出现的“林黛玉”、“贾宝玉”等，都是曹雪芹笔下栩栩如生的虚构人物。如果从现实世界来看，这些理论实体和虚构人物是不存在的，指称它们的词项是空词项。但在相应的理论或文艺作品等领域中，这些词项是有指称的，因而不是空词项。同样的道理，在现实生活中，“天使”“孙悟空”“独角兽”都是被虚构出来，不存在的东西，所以是空词项。但是当你特别去考察宗教文化的时候，天使就不是空词项，考察西游记著作或者电视剧的时候，孙悟空就不是空词项，考察《旧约全书》等于独角兽有关的著作时，独角兽就不是空词项。
虚词
虚词：是没有完整的词汇意义，无实在意义，但有语法意义或功能意义的词。特点是依附于实词或语句表语法意义，在句子中不能独立承担句子成分。冠词用在名词前。a，the,an 介词表示它后面的名词或代词与其他句子成分的关系。in，on 连词用来连接词、短语或句子。and，but, where, that, which 感叹词表示感情。oh，well成风化人的意思，hi, hello 助词
“词汇与意义”Leech 七大语义分类：
Geoffery Leech, a world famous British linguist, categorizes ven types of meaning which will be prented in relation to words in the following ctions.
1《长征》．Conceptual meaning （概念意义） 2．Connotative meaning（内涵意义）3．Social meaning（社会意义）4．Affective meaning（情感意义）5．Reflected meaning（反映意义）6．Collocative meaning（搭配意义）
7．Thematic meaning（主题意义）
Conceptual meaning （概念意义）
Conceptual meaning is the basic meaning prented by meaningful linguistic units, including words and it is often, though not always, the central factor in linguistic communication. It refers to logical, cognitive, referential or denotative content. Words may refer to objects in the real world (e.g. dog, book, river, etc.) or abstract concepts (e.g. life, friendship, hatred, etc.) in our mind. The relationship between a word and an object i
n the real world or a concept in our mind to which the word refers is the conceptual meaning of the word. 概念意义是意义的核心，它直接地、明确的表示所指对象，因此又叫做所指意义denatative meaning 如：father, dad, daddy, papa, the old man, male parent,爸的笔顺怎么写具有相同的概念意义，不同的感情意义和文体意义。
Associative meaning(联想意义)
词的联想意义：词的关联意义又叫联想意义，是词的附带意义，包括词的感情色彩、文体意义等，这种意义不确定，变化大。如：woman一词让我们联想到妈妈、养儿育女、温柔、持家等。词的联想意义可分为：
1．Connotative meaning（内涵意义）
Connotative meaning is the communicative value that an expression has in addition to the purely conceptual meaning（内涵意义是一个词语在纯概念意义之外的交际值）.The word “woman” can be defined conceptually as an adult female. And we know that veral other psychological and social features can be attributed to her, such as “gregarious”（爱
交际）, “subject to instinct”溺水事例（易受直觉影响）, “capable of speech”（语言能力强）种植葡萄, “experienced in cookery”（精于烹调）, “skirt or dress wearing”（穿裙子）and “long hair wearing”（留长发）. The additional features are its connotative meaning, which may further include such features as “frail”（脆弱）, “prone to tears”（爱哭）, “emotional”（感情用事）, “inconstant”（轻率易变）, etc. as some males tend to impo on her and such good qualities as “gentle”, “compassionate”（富有同情心）, “nsitive”, “hardworking” and so on.. “Statesman”（政治家）and “politician”（政客）are mainly distinguished by their connotative meaning. They can both be ud to refer to a high government official. While “politician” conveys a derogative（贬义的）connotative meaning “engaging in politics for personal gain”, “statesman” does not.
指附加在概念意义上，通过语言所指事物传递的意义， 比较不稳定，经常随着社会文化、历史时期和个人经历的变化而变化。 如：woman的概念意义就是human+male+adult， 但这三个特征又有它的属性，即我们提到woman会想、联想到女人的社会、心理、生理等特点；如：frail, prone to tears, emotional 社会、姐姐、阶层和个人都可以给一个词附加一个内涵意义
球蟒
2．Social meaning（社会意义）。
Social meaning or stylistic meaning is what a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its u（社会意义又称文体意义，指一种语言所使用的社会环境）. The social circumstance of language u may include at least urs (who are using language), tting (where is language ud), topics (what are the language urs talking or writing about). For example, “domicile”, “residence”, “adobe” and “home” are synonymous to each other, that is, conceptually they refer to the same thing in the real world. However, “domicile” is normally ud in official or legal documents or between people who are involved in official or legal affairs. “Residence” is normally ud in formal or administrative circumstances. “Adobe” is a poetic word, normally ud in the creation and appreciation of poems. “Home” is the only word that is often ud in everyday speech between classmates, colleagues, friends or family members. An expression can tell us, in addition to the intended information, the social circumstances in which it is ud. This is what social meaning is about.
3．Affective meaning（情感意义）所传达的关于说话人或作者感情、态度方面的意义，即语言所具有的褒贬义。如英语词汇politician常译为汉语词汇政治家、政客，politician指热衷于政治、玩弄权术，谋取私利的人，具有贬义。政治家在我们国家是有贬义的，相当于英语中的statesman.
Affective meaning is communicated when the feelings or attitudes are expresd in language. Such interjections as “aha”, “my God”, “oh”, “dear” are chiefly ud to convey affective meaning. In other cas, affective meaning is conveyed through the mediation conceptual, connotative, or stylistic meaning. The utterance “You’re a liar. I hate you for that” directly conveys the speaker’s attitudes towards the hearer, while the utterance “There were flashes of silence that made his conversation perfectly delightful”（连续的沉默无语使他的谈话变得十分精彩）conveys indirectly the speaker’s attitudinal meaning（对某人乏味谈话的不满）.
4．Reflected meaning（反映意义）
Reflected meaning aris in words of multiple conceptual meaning, when one n of
菠萝虾球a word forms part of our respon to another n. For example, while “the Comforter” and “the Holy Ghost” both refer to God in religious English, the former sounds warm and “comforting” and the latter sounds awesome becau the are the reflected meaning of the two terms.
