中国食谱
Daniel Siconolfi, Perry N. Halkitis, Timothy W. Allomong and Charles L. Burton, New York Univer-sity.
The authors would like to thank the rearch team and volunteers at CHIBPS, the NYU Steinhardt School of Education, Culture, and Human Development’s Dean’s Rearch Grant program, and the partici-pants of Project BAR.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addresd to Daniel Siconolfi, Center for Health,Identity, Behavior, & Prevention Studies (CHIBPS), 726 Broadway, Suite 525, New York, NY 10003, USA.Email: daniel.siconolfi@nyu.edu
International Journal of Men’s Health , V ol. 8, No. 3, Fall 2009, 254-264.
© 2009 by the Men’s Studies Press, LLC. All rights rerved.jmh.0803.254/$14.00 • DOI: 10.3149/jmh.0803.254 • Url: dx.doi/10.3149/jmh.0803.254
Body Dissatisfaction and Eating Disorders in a
Sample of Gay and Bixual Men
D ANIEL S ICONOLFI
P ERRY N. H ALKITIS
T IMOTHY W. A LLOMONG
C HARLES L. B URTON
New York University
北京师范大学研究生Men’s body image issues have a number of manifestations and gay men are at particular risk for body dissatisfaction and eating disorders. This study sought to examine body image and disordered eating as they relate to demographics, con-ceptions of masculinity, external motivations for fitness, and internalized homo-phobia in a sample of New York City gay and bixual men. Higher body dissatisfaction scores were associated with external motivations for working out and older age. Eating disorder scores were positively correlated with more fre-quent and longer exerci ssions, and states of anxiety, depression, ambivalence,and concerns about the perceptions of others, all in regard to a gay or bixual orientation. Findings are discusd with implications for rearchers and health care providers.
Keywords : men, gay/bixual, body image, eating disorder, internalized homo-phobia
Men’s body image issues range a wide gamut and have a number of manifesta-tions, including classic eating disorders, excessive exerci, obssion with muscula-ture or body parts, and u of steroids and supplements. Popular media tend to portray the ideal male body in a supermuscular form that is nearly unattainable without the u of anabolic-androgenic steroids (Pope, Phillips, & Olivardia, 2002), and this archetype
of the male physique has created body image concerns for some men that parallel tho
B ODY D ISSATISFACTION AND E ATING D ISORDERS that many women have dealt with historically. The effects of media images on how women perceive themlves and their physical bodies have been well documented. Gay men, however have recently been identified in rearch as being prone to even greater levels of body image dissatisfaction when compared to their heteroxual male and fe-male counterparts (Drummond; Kaminski, Chapman, Haynes, & Own, 2005; Martins, Tiggemann, & Kirkbride, 2007; Yelland & Tiggemann, 2003). Male body dissatisfac-tion, which is associated with having a stereotypical conception of masculine attrac-tiveness, has es
pecially affected men who internalize the media’s suggestion that men are more ideal and desirable if they are muscular (Drummond, 2005; Frederick et al., 2007; Halkitis, Green, & Wilton, 2004; Kaminski et al., 2005; Kimmel & Mahalik, 2005; Pope et al.; Yelland & Tiggemann). As the media portray the average desirable man as increasingly muscular, men of all xualities are likely to feel that their own bod-ies are inferior in comparison to muscular ideals (Drummond; Leit, Pope, & Gray, 2001; Pope et al.). Pope et al. describe such sources of media as men’s health maga-zines, dating rvice advertiments, professional sports players, pornography, and toy figurines.
Further, within the gay community exists a harsh competition to embody the rigid standards of male beauty, a process that escalates the tendency among gay men to be-lieve that muscularity will grant social and xual desirability and power (Halkitis, 2001; Halkitis et al., 2004; Martins, Tiggemann, & Kirkbride, 2007; Signorile, 1997; Wood, 2004). Similarly, a number of rearchers and historians have posited that the dramatic ont of the “buff agenda” was, in part, an internal reaction to the early AIDS epidemic and its physical manifestations, namely, wasting and death, when muscles, tone, and youthfulness became an ideal in strong contrast to the frailty associated with AIDS (Drummond, 2005; Halkitis et al., 2004; Pope et al., 2002). Along the lines, health care providers’ u of testosterone therapy (prescribed steroids) to remedy the fa-tigue and physical deterioration as
sociated with HIV/AIDS and antiviral treatments has made it possible for many gay men to achieve an exceedingly physically muscular appearance (Halkitis et al., 2004).
Stereotypical conceptions of masculinity, such as the belief that masculine men must have muscular bodies, may generate body dissatisfaction in men who cannot achieve this muscular ideal (Halkitis, 2001; Pope et al., 2002). Since gay men are often pathologized as effeminate and weak, men may strive for what is regarded as mascu-line and powerful in an attempt to compensate for a degraded social status (Kimmel & Mahalik, 2005; Wood, 2004). Strong, Singh, and Randall (2000) found that gay men reported greater levels of childhood gender non-conformity than heteroxual men, and further, that childhood gender non-conformity was associated with adult body dissat-isfaction, regardless of xual orientation. Many gay men were tead or criticized dur-ing childhood for behaviors, thoughts, and physical characteristics that were considered feminine, “weak,” or gender non-conforming (Strong et al.; Wood). Along the lines, internalized homophobia, which is also referred to as internalized homonegativity, is the result of an internalization of anti-gay stigma experienced by gay men living within a largely heteroxual society (Kimmel & Mahalik; Meyer, 2003). Internalized homo-
S ICONOLFI ET AL.
phobia may play a role in how gay men perceive their bodies (Halkitis et al., 2004; Kimmel & Mahalik; Williamson, 1999). Body image and masculinity are also inextri-cably tied to gay men’s xuality. “Sexual prowess” is perceived as both an ideal and source of validation for gay men’s masculinity, and has been associated with inten-tional xual risk taking (Halkitis et al., 2004).
Rearchers have coined the term “buff agenda” to describe the cultural zeitgeist of muscle (Halkitis et al., 2004) that some gay men may ascribe to in an attempt to compensate for their experiences of dimpowerment and minority stress (Kimmel & Mahalik, 2005). In other words, some gay men may choo to propagate the “buff agenda” by attempting to gain social and interpersonal power through acquiring hyper masculine traits and muscular bodies (Halkitis et al., 2004; Halkitis & Wilton, 1999; Wood, 2004). Similarly, Drummond (2005) found that gay men tended to overwhelm-ingly describe muscles as portraying “control.”
Unfortunately, to attain the culturally prized, yet virtually unattainable, muscular physique, many gay men decide to turn to excessive exerci, restrictive diets, steroids, and other harmful behaviors to create the physiques that they desire. Physicians and other clinicians likely “miss” diagnos of men’s eating disorders and body image is-sues becau of the synergy between clinical training paradigms that prent eating disorders primarily as a female concern, and an overarching cultural p解读版
aradigm where men’s body image issues are invisible or non-existent (Andern, 1999). This is par-ticularly problematic for countless men who body image issues are subclinical by current diagnostic guidelines (Pope et al., 2002). Thus, the purpo of our study is to investigate body image in a sample of gay, bixual and other men who have x with men (MSM), as it relates to demographic states, conceptions of masculinity, and feel-ings of internalized homophobia.
高一集合练习题
Methods
Participants were recruited in New York City at the annual Lesbian, Gay, Bix-ual, and Transgender Pride Week in June of 2007. Questionnaires were given to men who indicated that they were at least 18 years of age, either gay or bixual, and will-ing to take part in a rearch study examining gym behaviors and body image. Re-spondents were advid that the survey would take approximately 10-15 minutes to complete and that they would be compensated with a $5 gift card to a popular coffee chain. After providing connt on the first page of the questionnaire, respondents were asked to provide their demographic information, including gender, age, xual orien-tation, HIV status, ethnicity, educational background, gym behaviors, and length of residence in New York City. Becau the prent study aimed to limit findings to gay and bixual men in the New York City metropolitan area, respondents who identified as heteroxual, female, or transgender were exclude
d from the analys. Completed surveys were entered into a databa and checked for accuracy for later analys.
B ODY D ISSATISFACTION AND E ATING D ISORDERS Table 1
Measures
奇丽的反义词Measure Mean score SD SE
Body Dissatisfaction Scale 3.09.06.06 Eating Disorder Scale 2.57.06.06 Conceptions of masculinity
Masculinity as xual behavior 3.16.07.07 Masculinity as social behavior 3.42.06.06 Masculinity as physical appearance 3.19.04.05 External motivations for working out 3.10.84.06 LGB identity
Internalized homonegativity 2.35.08.08 Need for privacy 3.69.09.09 Need for acceptance 2.93.08.08 Identity confusion 1.82.08.08 Coming out as a difficult process 3.28.09.09 Superiority 2.68.10.10
Measures
The survey consisted of five domains (e Table 1). All variables were tested to en-sure normal distribution.
Demographics. Participants were asked their gender, age, race/ethnicity, length of time living in the New York City metropolitan area, educational attainment, xual ori-entation, and HIV status.
Gym behaviors. Participants were asked whether they currently had an active gym membership, at what age they first began working out at a gym, the number of days they worked out in the past week, how many days they worked out in an average week over the past 6 months, and the duration (in hours) of their average workout.
External motivations for working out.This newly developed eight item measure examined men’s external motivations for maintaining a physically-fit body. Using a 5-point Likert-type scale, participants indicated agreement with statements measuring motivations, including social comparison (for example, “I keep my body in shape be-cau I want my body to be noticed”), xual prowess (for example, “I keep my body in shape becau I want to increa my chances of having x”), and health reasons (for example, “I keep my body in shape becau I want to maintain a healthy body”). The final scale, consisting of eight items, was tested for normal distribution and loaded on one factor with an explained variance of 50.91% with α= .86.
S ICONOLFI ET AL.
Meanings of masculinity. This 18 item scale measures men’s conceptions of mas-culinity on a 5-point Likert scale using 3 subscales (Halkitis et al., 2004). The first sub-scale measures Masculinity as Physical Appearance(α= .82 with this sample; for example, “Physical appearance does define masculinity”), the cond subscale meas-ures Masculinity as Social Behavior(α= .74 with this sample; for example, “I watch my behavior to make sure that I act masculine around other gay men”), and the third subscale measures Masculinity as Sexual Behavior(α= .84 with this sample; for ex-ample, “Sexual performance is an important part of masculinity”).
化变
Lesbian, Gay, and Bixual Identity Scale.This 27 item scale measures lesbian, gay, and bixual identity, constructed as six subscales (Mohr & Fasnger, 2000). Using a 7-point Likert scale, the 6 subscales measure Internalized Homonegativity/ Binegativity(for example, “Homoxual lifestyles are not as fulfilling as heteroxual lifestyles”), Need for Privacy(for example, “I prefer to keep my same-x romantic re-lationships rather private”), Need for Acceptance(for example, “I often wonder whether others judge me for my xual orientation”), Identity Confusion(for example, “I’m not totally sure what my xual orientation is”), Difficult , “Admitting to my-lf that I’m an LGB person has been a very painful process”), and Superiority(for ex-ample, “Straight people have boring 三观论
lives compared with LGB people”). The scale also provides a cond-order factor of Negative Identity, measured by Homonegativity, Need for Privacy, Need for Acceptance, and Difficult Process. The alphas ranged from 0.87 to 0.53 with this sample.
罗琦我是歌手Eating Attitudes Test – Eating Disorder. Bad on the work of Garner & Garfinkel (1979), this modified 17 item scale (α= .92) measures attitudes toward food and eat-ing, using symptoms that are characteristic of eating disorders. Sample items include:“I find mylf preoccupied with food,” “I feel uncomfortable after eating sweets,” and,“I am preoccupied with the thought of having fat on my body.” Participants respond using a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from “Always” to “Never.”
Body dissatisfaction. Bad on the work of Garner, Olmstead and Polivy (1983), this nine item scale, originally a subscale of the Eating Disorder Inventory,measures body dissatisfaction according to specific body parts. This scale was modified to be more specific to men; sample items include: “I think my pecs are just the right size” and “I like the size of my cock.” Principal component factor analys yielded one factor ex-plaining 50.3% of the variance after removing 1 item (“I think my abs are not devel-oped enough”), and with a final α= .80.
Sample Characteristics
In total, 219 eligible respondents completed surveys, and the mean age of respon-dents was 33 years (SD= 10.67, Median = 31). In regard to xual orientation, 90.9% (n= 199) identified as gay, homoxual, or queer, 6.8% (n= 15) identified as bixual,
